30 STEPS TO A RESEARCH PAPER
A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR
PLANNING YOUR RESEARCH PAPER
30
STEPS TO A RESEARCH PAPER
1. Understanding the thesis-driven paper
Definition: A thesis-driven research paper is similar
to a long essay. The paper will have a strong, arguable thesis statement in the
introduction. (A thesis is a “proposition maintained by argument” - American
Heritage College). A thesis can be described as a simple equation:
Subject/Topic + Opinion/Stand = Thesis Statemnt
A “thesis” is a statement of what
you will prove in the paper. It is the main idea, the central point. Every thesis statement should be the
“solution” to a problem, the “answer” to a question. A thesis-driven paper
requires you to take a stand on an issue and then defend that stand. A good thesis statement should be provable,
which means it is also a statement that can be disproved. Unlike a personal essay, which doesn’t
require outside research because it details your feelings and opinions on a
topic, a thesis-driven research paper
requires you to search out the solution to a problem that you have proposed in
the paper’s thesis statement and to present what you have learned through
research in a well-written, coherent paper.
Below are some tips for writing papers with a thesis:
- It is important to keep in
mind that you are not just picking a topic, but rather arguing for a
thesis that is related to the topic. If you choose to write on a topic,
you would not write about a range of issues related to that topic.
Instead, you should argue for or against a thesis regarding the topic.
- In arguing for a thesis, you
should give the strongest reasons that you can think of in order to show
your reader that you have thought through all of the relevant issues. Your
reasons may include any relevant scientific data, statistics, the views of
recognized experts, observation and experience, and undeniable truths. Be
sure to provide a clear and logical argument that supports your position
or view.
- While writing this type of
paper, it is essential that you raise the strongest objections against
your thesis that you can think of. In other words, be the “devil's
advocate” with your own argument. In your paper you should reply to your
opponent's questions and objections.
All of the paragraphs should support or prove your thesis, and your
paper should conclude with a statement of solution and/or suggestions for
resolution. All language should be formal- NO “I”, “you”, “me”, “our”, etc.; in
other words, do not use pronouns-name the person of whom you are speaking. Do
not use contractions, slang or abbreviations.
The argument against “I” is that it is unnecessary fluff and draws too
much attention to the process of writing and to the author. A paper should be
about the historical subject, not about the author's feelings or opinions.
2. Identify possible subjects
The subject
of a research paper is the larger, more general area of investigation. Sometimes subject
and topic are used as synonyms. They are related, but subject refers to the broader
area into which a topic fits. A topic is
a small piece of a large subject. For example,
a research subject might be “women writers,” but the narrower topic would be
“Willa Cather.”
Generally,
the subject is a broad area about which the researcher begins to ask
questions. A broad subject helps you
begin your preliminary exploration. Simple
methods for finding a subject are brainstorming,
clustering, or listing.
Brainstorming: Using a clean sheet of
paper, being to write down whatever words come to mind in whatever order they
come. Make lists or jot down phrases.
Clustering: This exercise requires you to arrange your
brainstorming in groups that help to relate or connect the ideas to your thesis
or subject.
Listing: Similar to brainstorming, you
start with a general or large subject and then write down at least 30 smaller,
related subjects.
One
strategy is to give yourself 10 – 15 minutes to one of the writing activities
above. If a satisfying subject doesn’t
come to the surface, try another activity.
The above
strategies can help you to find the broader subject of interest or to narrow and
to define your topic. Sometimes the best
way to discover workable and valuable topics in your subject area is to read
from a variety of sources about your subject.
3. Read general sources
General
sources give wider-ranging information.
Examples of general sources are articles from encyclopedias, visual
sources (maps, photographs, charts, or the like), or a website. Defining the purpose of the search helps the
researcher guide and narrows the search.
Choosing a topic usually means deciding to focus on one aspect of the
subject to narrow the field of investigation.
Once you have settled on a subject, it is important to consider your
purpose for doing research before deciding on a possible topic.
4. Narrow the subject
Help for
selecting your topic:
-- Free-write
for 10 minutes on a separate paper about the subject you are considering.
-- When you
have finished, read for other topics that might work well as a focus.
-- Review
the list and determine which most interests you.
5. Select your topic
Once you’ve
narrowed the subject, consider the questions about this subject that you would
like answered. A writer usually sets out
to do research in order to answer a question or several questions. As the writer of a research paper, you will
use these questions to help you choose a topic that can develop into a working
hypothesis. Framing a research question
is a way of focusing the main direction of the research; it expresses what you
want to find out. Many times, background
reading helps the writer to discover and develop more research questions. General reading about a topic will help the
writer to narrow a topic that is initially too broad or general.
Research questions and point of view: A good way to formulate good research questions is to look at several
points of view on the same issue. Your
point of view is your opinion on the topic.
Your point of view will be used to shape the kind of essay you
write.
6. Form leading research questions
After
reading some general information about a subject, you will probably have some
interesting questions already in mind.
It is important to think about the questions to make sure that they fit
with your thesis. These questions will
help direct your writing and your research.
What makes a good question?
-- You want to answer it.
-- It feels like the right size. (too broad and the research will take too
long; too narrow and you will not find enough material.)
-- Avoid questions that can be answered simply “yes” or
“no.”
-- Avoid only questions whose answers are purely factual. Think of questions that begin with “Why” or
“How.”
The purpose
of good questions is that they lead the researcher to a synthesis of
information. This means that the
researcher gathers information from a variety of sources – often sources that
contradict one another or take differing points of view – and brings it
together, along with his or her own thinking, to a new formulation by asking a
new question.
7. Formulate working thesis
Once you
have a list of questions, you are ready to formulate a hypothesis. Many writers believe this is the most
important step in organizing a successful research paper. A good thesis creates the plan or map of
everything that will follow in the paper.
However, as you begin, you should think of the thesis as a hypothesis or
“working thesis.” You haven’t yet done
the research necessary to collect all the information on your topic or to
answer your questions. If you did, you
wouldn’t need to do the research! The research
should help you to continue to shape the thesis. Although your working thesis may prove
accurate, the most exciting discoveries occur when you let the research lead
you to new territory.
Thesis:
A proper thesis has two parts, the topic and your point of view on the
topic. The difference between a topic
and a thesis is the writer’s point of view.
The thesis must cover the entire essay.
A successful working thesis should: identify the narrow topic that paper
will explore; state the writer’s opinion; label the writer’s point of view, or
“angle” on the topic; suggest the method or direction the research will take;
be flexible enough to change in response to information and ideas gleaned from
sources.
Answer each
of the following questions until you reach your own working thesis:
a. What
narrow topic will your paper explore?
b. What is
your opinion so far?
c. What is
your point of view or “angle?”
d. What
method will I use? (Or in what direction
do you plan to go?)
e. What
might you have to be flexible about?
f. What is
your working thesis in a single sentence?
8. Making Your Research & Writing Plan
The key to
success with research is planning. You
do not always know what kind of reference materials you will find or how long
it will take to pull your materials together into a final thesis, outline,
rough draft and final copy. It is
important to be aware of the all of the steps necessary to write your paper in
the given amount of time. Working with a
calendar and writing your own plan will help you to stay on top of the process.
One of the
first, and most helpful, steps is to make your own calendar or chart with
assignments listed and your own plans for getting research and writing
done. When making a research plan,
consider the following questions:
1.
What kind of sources will I need to find?
2.
Are my resources easily available? Do I need to request any from other
libraries?
3.
Will my research require any interviews that need to be
scheduled?
4.
How long do I estimate that it will take to read the
materials?
5.
Am I a faster reader/researcher or writer? Where should I leave time for more work in my
weaker areas?
6.
Do I work better at home or at school?
7.
Should I set personal dates for being 1/3- or 1/2- way
through the rough draft?
Your topic
and thesis will help to determine what kind of research will be required for
your paper. The requirements will vary
for each student. The following
questions will help you determine exactly where to go next with your research.
1. What is your research subject and to what
topic have you narrowed the subject?
2. From what source (book, article, and website)
did you originally use to find this
subject?
3. What is the key/leading research question
that you are posing?
4. Where do you anticipate finding the most
information on this topic? The most
current
information? The most credible and trustworthy
information?
5.
Will the resources include primary and secondary sources?
6.
Will any interviews or tours of locations be helpful for your research?
This
proposal consists of four paragraphs.
Identify in your own words that goal or purpose of each paragraph. Do you think this is a successful
proposal? List three reasons why or why
not.
9. Writing Your Proposal
The
proposal is a brief written statement in which you explain to your teacher and
yourself what your goals are for the research assignment. The proposal helps the teacher to evaluate if
you’re heading in the right direction.
Like a contract or agreement, the proposal demonstrates what the student
is thinking about the topic and what preparations have been made for research. Writing out your proposed plans also helps
prevent procrastination.
The
proposal functions as a map for the process of writing the research paper. It presents a brief introduction to the
subject, explains the thesis and shows the direction in which the writer plans
to go to answer the research question(s) and support the thesis. The writer must do some preliminary reading
and research to provide the information a good proposal offers.
The
ingredients for a good proposal are:
– brief
background information for the subject and chosen topic
– a
working thesis
– awareness
of the level of the audience
– a
plan for locating the appropriate sources
– a
timeline for completing the assignment
– acknowledgement
of any difficulties or challenges for the project.
After reviewing the ingredients for a good proposal, write a
proposal for your own research topic.
Before you begin, review all of your work in the previous steps. This paper should be a clear, effective
single-page, business-like document.
10. Brainstorm/ Cluster/Free-write
A good way
to start your process is to find out how much you already know about your
topic. Discovering how much you know
about a topic reveals how much you still need to discover. It helps to establish a baseline for your
work. Below are some helpful strategies:
– Brainstorm,
Cluster, or Free-Write for 10 minutes about the topic you’ve chosen. Include facts and details that you already
know. Group information that
specifically applies to your chosen thesis.
– Ten
Questions to Gauge Someone’s Knowledge: Using the subject from your own research
proposal, write a list of ten qualities you think would gauge someone’s
knowledge about that area.
– Interviews: Ask a variety of people for their thoughts
and impressions about this topic. “Test”
your thesis on them for reactions and ideas.
Checklist for
Subject, Topic & Thesis
r Have
you found an appropriate subject by exploring your subject via brainstorming or
clustering?
r Is
your topic specific enough?
r Have
you read some general sources to help you find a topic?
r Do
you know the purpose for the intended topic?
r Is
your topic interesting to you, and will it interest readers?
r Do
you have a good research question (or several questions)?
r Do
you understand the differences between fact and opinion?
r Does
your topic idea reveal your own opinion?
r Have
you begun to analyze your topic?
r Do
you have a working thesis?
r Have
you written a research proposal that is a legitimate statement of your
intentions for the research paper?
11. Find sources
(print & electronic)
A source of factual data usually provides one of
the following:
– exact
text of a written, spoken, or visual composition
– statistics
or measurements
– a
summary report of an experience
– information
When a source provides a paper with ideas, it is often
providing one of the following:
– a
particular claim made by another writer about the topic you are addressing,
along with the reasoning that supports the claim
– a
general concept – a term, theory, or approach – that has appeared in discussion
of other topics and that you apply to your own.
To make use
of a source in any way, a writer must take a stance towards the sources. The three basic stances you can take toward a
source are “yes,” “no,” and “maybe.” You
can affirm or accept what you read; you can reject or disagree with the
material; you can qualify or modify the source and say “yes, but ..”
You can
find sources in many ways. As you
explore sections of your library and the internet, you will find a variety of material
that will help you support your thesis.
Using search engines on the internet (Google, Lycos, Ask.com, Bing,
Yahoo, etc.) or library catalogs, you can find reputable books and websites. Below is a list of possible sources of
information:
·
Books (reference, fiction, non-fiction)
·
Specialized Reference Tools (dictionaries, encyclopedias,
almanacs, indexes, atlases)
·
Periodicals (magazines, journals, newspapers)
·
Internet (many of the same materials listed
above can be found in electronic versions)
·
Non-print sources (museums, photographs, recordings, films,
historic sites, galleries, community experts)
·
Interviews & Questionnaires (individuals, groups, organizations)
Retrieving Sources: Most libraries
have switched from the multiple drawers of a card catalog to electronic
catalogs that can be accessed from any computer. While each system is not identical, the basic
search options are the same. You can
search for subjects, titles, and authors.
Many library catalogs also allow you to refine your search. If you can’t find a source, someone from the
circulation desk or a reference librarian can help you locate a specific book
or periodical.
Most people
are familiar with search engines for the
internet. Sites such as Google, Bing, Ask.com, or Yahoo offer services that
let you look up almost anything. Google
Scholar searches academic publications.
Scirus.com searches scientific sources; iSeek is another general studies
search engine.
12. Evaluate sources
Finding a
source is only the beginning of the research.
More importantly, you must evaluate the source – that is, decide
whether it is reliable.
Primary and Secondary Sources: Primary sources are first or original
documents or materials. Sources called
“primary” generally appear in papers as a source of un-interpreted factual
data. The following can be primary
sources: manuscripts (diaries, letters,
unpublished material such as first drafts of poems, early books, and other
special handwritten documents); government documents (census reports, maps, tax
records, property deeds, wills, Bureau of Statistics listings); photograph
collections; sound recordings; film, television and radio archives; artifacts
(items found in museums). Places can be
primary sources. For example, the
terrain of a Civil War battlefield would be a primary source. Also, the large room at Ellis Island where
immigrants waited to hear the verdicts
of customs agents would be considered a primary source.
Secondary sources are those that come
from a primary source; they rely on primary sources for information but present
another’s interpretation or application of the primary source. For example, a biography of Thomas Jefferson
might include primary sources (the Declaration of Independence or personal
letters) but will give the writer’s own interpretation of Mr. Jefferson’s live.
Specific primary sources are often
difficult for student researchers to find.
They may be rare, fragile, or in distant and restricted places. Therefore, many researchers rely on good
quality secondary sources that are more widely available. Remember, that a secondary source CAN be the
source for the original texts of primary sources. The Declaration of Independence presented as
a reprint in a history book may still be referenced as a primary source. A biography of a famous leader may include
copies of letters; these would be considered primary sources.
Area libraries may be your greatest
repository (collection) of materials.
Often local libraries have agreements with nearby communities allowing
you to access and borrow books from them, too.
Additionally, college libraries may have helpful materials that you can
use in the building or can borrow. Don’t
overlook the personal libraries of persons who are especially knowledgeable on
your topic.
Using the Internet:
The
persuasiveness of a paper depends in part on the reliability of the sources
being used. Some sources, especially on
the internet, have never been checked by authorities in the field, are out of
date, or are likely to be inaccurate or incomplete. They may be influence by a bias, a profit
motive, or a current fad.
Assessing internet sources: The best way to locate reliable sources is to
go through a web site of a scholarly library that gives you access to
databases, texts, journals, collections of statistics, maps, paintings, and
many other sources available through these library “portals” are chosen for
scholarly authority and reliability.
Generally, use websites to supplement and confirm other sources.
When you use
websites:
– Give
priority to those that list their sources or at least an advisory board of
professionals who judge the material.
– If
the site doesn’t list its sources but still seems serious (no carelessness,
bias, commercial interests), check out the author’s professional position,
other written materials, or a respectable institution base.
– Don’t
use as a source a site that gives no author or supervisory editor.
– When
the site is subject to change by other readers (for example Wikipedia), try to
find a more stable source.
Guidelines for
evaluating print and online sources:
Usefulness. Ask yourself, “Am I using the source to
shape my topic, or am I letting the source dictate how the paper is
developing.” If it is a book, read the
table of contents, scan the index, and read the appropriate sections that link
to your own subject. Read the preface,
introduction, and appendix or notes.
Reliability. Is your source objective or does it support a
personal or p political bias? Here are
some tips:
– Who
is the author? Does the author have
credentials or a reputation within the field?
– Is
the source up-to-date? Facts and
opinions are continually being reassessed and revised. Check the date of the source, especially of
your topic is on current events.
– Does
the piece have a strong point of view? If so, does the author admit to bias? Does
the author balance the viewpoint by comparing it to other positions on the
subject?
– Is
the source a primary or secondary source?
Thoroughness or range
of sources. Have you collected a
mixture of types of sources? Primary and
secondary, scholarly and journalistic, books, periodicals, nonprint sources – a
mixture is necessary for a well-balanced paper.
Do not depend on only one source, even if you think it is excellent.
Complete article or
summary? Have you read a complete
source, or is it a shortened version.
Relying entirely on the brief excerpt could lead to an incorrect or
incomplete result.
Point of View: Few writers write from a purely non-biased
perspective. You can determine a
writer’s point of view evaluating the details the writer includes or omits,
placement of information, tone of voice, and use of negative or positive
language.
13. Preparing a working bibliography
A working
bibliography is a list of the sources you are collecting and evaluating for
your research paper. When the paper is
completed, you will be creating a formal list to appear at the back of your
essay, identifying all the sources from which you took your information. The working bibliography, then, is an in-progress list of the sources you’re are
locating and using. It is much
easier to keep track of your sources as you find them than to go back and
create the list after you’ve started writing.
Save time and frustration by copying down all the necessary information
about each source as you locate and retrieve it.
Copy down
important source information for each source you investigate. Write your information either in a notebook
or on a note card. Copy the following
information for each source:
– all
author’s names, or editor’s names
– the
exact title of the article, including subtitles or headlines
– the
exact title of the magazine, newspaper, or journal in which you found it
– the
complete date:
§ month,
day, and year (newspaper or weekly)
§ month
and year (monthly)
§ other
date information for quarterly or semiannual publications
– the
issue or volume number, if there is one
– the
pages on which the article appears
– for
a print encyclopedia, the name of the encyclopedia, the title of the article
you found, the date when the edition of the encyclopedia was published, the
volume, and the pages; for an online encyclopedia, use the URL.
– the
date, time and place of any conversations or interviews.
– location
of the book (library, school, home,
etc.)
Examples of a
bibliographical note cards
For a whole book:
For an article in a reference book:
For a website:
Good
reading and diligent note taking are essential for forming and supporting your
working thesis. You must learn to read
carefully and selectively. Not
everything you read will be helpful.
Another key aspect of researching is knowing when to skim and when to
take more time with a text. While
reading, you will want to take down notes.
Some notes will be paraphrases of the material put in your own
words. Some will be specific word for
word quotes that you intend to use.
14. Research & take notes
Having
clear research questions helps to bring a focus to the reading. Reading
selectively means reading with a purpose. When you know what questions you want
answered, you know what sections can be skimmed.
Taking notes helps you collect information. Write down material (facts, details, ideas)
that help you expand, clarify, or support your thesis. Also include any points that disagree with
it, so that you can argue against them.
It is very important to be specific in your notes to avoid confusion or
errors.
General guidelines on
taking notes:
– Include
historical or biographical background information.
– Include
ideas that support or develop your thesis.
– Include
quotable words, phrases, or short passages that you want to use word for
word. Be careful about copying these
sections accurately and noting the pages from which they are taken.
– Include
statistics that can be used to support or develop your ideas.
– Include
scientific or technical information.
What you copy should be related to your thesis. Keep track of facts, but select only those
that will help you defend your own ideas.
Ways to take notes:
Note cards: Note cards are often used when collecting
information because they are a flexible system which helps you organize your
information once the research is complete.
You can carry the note cards with you, spreading them out on a table and
organizing them into piles. Larger
cards, 5x7 as opposed to 3x5, give extra room for your notes. You will need a different note card for each
note. It is important to include the
basic information about the source and to write neatly and legibly.
Notebook: Many students prefer to keep their research
in a book because they are afraid of losing note cards. Also, due to their personal organizational
style, they prefer to see large amounts of information at a time rather than
smaller portions. As with note cards, it
is important to organize your notes as you take them. Some writers like to keep all of the notes
from a singular source together. Others
prefer to organize them according to ideas, with separate ideas per page.
Electronic Notes: Computers and electronic notepads can be
convenient. Some researchers prefer to
type their notes into word processing software.
The advantages of computer note-taking is that you can “copy and paste”
and move sections around as you organize.
As with note cards or a notebook, organization is a key to success. Some people will make a table that serves as
a template for recording information. A
separate document for each main idea will enable an organization of the
materials.
Example:
|
Subject
|
|
|
Author
|
|
|
Title
|
|
|
Date
|
|
|
Page #, or URL
|
|
|
Comments/ Notes
|
|
Photocopies: While this is not note-taking, it is a method
of compiling information. Sometimes
sources are not available for long periods of time. Many libraries have sections of resources
that can only be used in the library.
Photocopying articles, graphs, maps, etc. for later use is a helpful
strategy when collecting information. Longer internet articles with a large
quantity of useful material can be printed and used later.
Avoiding Plagiarism: Plagiarism
is using someone’s words, ideas, or concepts without giving them credit. It is the act of passing off the information,
ideas, or words of another as your won, by failing to acknowledge their source. Plagiarus
means “kidnapper” and in antiquity, plagiarii
were pirates who sometimes stole children.
When you plagiarize, as several commentators have observed, you steal
the brainchild of another. (Harvey,
29)
In other
words, citing your information is giving credit where credit is due. Most people plagiarize accidentally. However, some students become either lazy or
confused and don’t do a thorough job.
In order to
know what material to document, you also need to know what not to
document. It is not necessary to
document facts that most people accept as true or opinions held by a large
number of people. Common knowledge
refers to facts or ideas that most people know, even if you’ve just learned
it. This information does not need to be
cited. In general, you must document
– an
opinion or fact that is not common knowledge
– the
specific words or expressions used or the organization imposed by someone else
– original
research, including statistics, surveys, and other findings.
Common forms of plagiarism:
More common than wholesale copying of materials is piecemeal or “mosaic”
plagiarism, in which a student mixes words or ideas of a source with his or her
own words and ideas, or mixes uncited
words and ideas from several sources into a composite, or mixes properly cited uses of a source with improperly or uncited
uses. Plagiarism commonly takes one of
the following forms:
– Uncited
data or information
– Uncited
idea, whether a specific claim or a general concept
– An
unquoted but verbatim phrase or passage
– An
uncited structure or organizing strategy.
Citing sources reliably:
Your reader must be able to see that your sources are reliable that your
have been responsible in your use of them.
You must make clear what information comes from you and what comes from
your sources. You should cite your sources
on the following situations:
– Whenever
you use factual material – ex. data, information, testimony, or a report – that
you found in a source. You need to make
clear to your readers who gathered the information and where to find its
original form.
– Whenever
you use ideas – e.g. claims, interpretations, conclusions, or lines of
reasoning – arrived at by another person, so your readers know that your are
summarizing thoughts formulated by someone else.
– Whenever
you use a special concept, term, or theory that you found in a source.
– Whenever
you make use of a source passage’s distinctive structure, organizing strategy,
or method.
– Whenever
you quote verbatim (word for word)
If it seems that you have an excess of citations, you may be
citing “common knowledge,” citing inefficiently, or giving too much of
another’s ideas and need to generate some of your own.
Careful
citing of your sources is:
– a
service: You’ve done the research and
are letting them know where to find this valuable information.
– a
moral obligation: You are letting your
readers know where the credit is due for the information you’ve given. This is a fair treatment for others who have
done the work.
– an
argumentative advantage: Using the
information, both facts and ideas, contributed by scholars and experts gives
weight and influence to your paper.
15. Paraphrase, summarize, and quote sources
As you take
notes, you should try to quote rather than paraphrase whenever possible. You can always translate quotations into
paraphrases or summaries later, but you cannot transform paraphrases or
summaries into quotations.
Paraphrasing: A paraphrase is an expression in your own
words of an idea or passage written by someone else. In a good paraphrase, you show that you
understand what has been written by changing the language while remaining
faithful to the original meaning. A
paraphrase is always documented; although the words are yours, the ideas are
those of the original author.
Paraphrasing can be difficult because words, phrases, and syntax tend to
stay in your head. Some guidelines to
help you paraphrase:
– Begin
by reading carefully and thinking about what you have read.
– Cover
the material that you are paraphrasing with a piece of paper so that you can’t
see it.
– Paraphrase
the material.
– Paraphrase
your paraphrase.
– Check
what you’ve written against the original, and make more changes where
necessary.
– If
you are really struck, quote the original word or phrase, but only if you
simply can’t put it into your own words.
Summarizing: A summary is an outline of a document in
which you reduce a source text to its main point and aspects. It is shorter than a paraphrase. A summary may be done in words, phrases, or
sentences. A summary should be accurate
and concise. When doing a summary, you should
include:
– the
article or chapter’s main ideas
– the
major ideas supporting or explaining these main ideas.
Exact Quotations: Quoting
involves copying the exact words of a writer – word for word, punctuation for
punctuation. Although you should quote
frequently in your notes, in your final papers you should quote only when there
is no other way to represent adequately the language or ideas of the original
source. It is necessary to quote in
certain cases:
– Authoritative
and/or famous people
– Writers
and poets. Quoting is often necessary to
preserve their unique use of language.
– Special
terminology: scientific, legal, or
technical language. It is almost
impossible to paraphrase this information, and it is too dense to summarize.
Ellipsis: Quoting too much can make the reader lose the
sense of your argument. Your paper can
become a mass of quotations rather than a means to convey your own ideas. You can use ellipses to shorten your
quotations when they contain more information than you really need to make your
point. An ellipsis is three dots that
indicate that words have been omitted from a quotation.
Brackets can be
used to insert explanatory material not part of the initial quote. They are used to make the quote clear.
16. Make outlines: preliminary, running, informal, formal
Preliminary
outline: The preliminary outline is
written before you begin taking notes.
Once you’ve determined your topic, your thesis, and your leading
questions, you should write a very general outline of the main points. This outline will direct you to your sources
and will determine what kind of information you will need.
Running Outline: The “running outline” lists your ideas as
they come to you and as you research.
The primary purpose of the running outline is to keep track of the
information you compile. As you read,
pick out the major topics, keeping track of sub-topics. A running outline can be formed before you
begin taking notes or as you take notes.
A running outline is used to keep track of your research to help you
understand what you have read and to make a plan for what you’re going to
write.
Informal
Outlines: Combining the preliminary
outline (what you plan to research) and the running outline (what you’re
discovered while researching), the informal outline is a “work in process” that
helps to form the skeleton of your paper, the formal outline. As you read and compile information, you will
adjust your preliminary outline to reflect your research. You may find more (or less) information than
you anticipated. You may also find that
your research does not agree with what you thought you would find.
Formal Outlines: Looking at the elements of your running and
informal outlines should help you choose the right formal outline for your
essay.
Types of Formal
Outlines: Once you have classified
and arranged the elements of your outline and have selected the kind of
organizational model you want to use, you need to pick the kind of outline you
want to use. Your outline is a tool to
help you as you prepare to write your paper.
Three types of outlines are typically used.
Traditional Outline: This outline uses Roman numerals, upper-case
letters, Arabic numerals, and lower-case letters to organize the ideas and to
represent the many levels of topics and subtopics. These points on these outlines are stated in
phrases or one-word comments.
Topic Sentence
Outline: This outline is similar to
the traditional outline but simpler because it contains only major topics
expressed in complete sentences and major subtopics expressed in phrases.
Topic Sentence and
Quotation Outline: This kind of
outline uses topic sentences and quotations to support the topics. It is a useful kind of outline because the
process of creating it pinpoints useful quotations that you will need.
Developing your own
outline: Choose the type of running
outline you want to use for your won essay and develop it. Remember, a running outline is a less formal
outline that you write as you do your research.
With your running outline and thesis in front of you, make sure you’re
on the right track. Sometimes,
adjustments need to be made to the thesis or the direction of the research.
Checklist of Progress
r Have
you made a running outline of the main ideas in your essay?
r Have
you classified your main ideas in larger groupings?
r Are
you aware of the variety of development models that can help you arrange your
ideas meaningfully?
r Have
you made a formal outline of your essay?
17. Organize information
The best
way to prepare for the difficult task of writing is to make an outline which is
an organized listing of the major topics and subtopics of your thesis. An outline provides you with a guide to
follow when you are writing your paper.
Outlines act as the “skeleton” of the essay’s body, giving it shape and
definition. Outlines normally evolve
from lists of topics and/or research questions.
As
you’re planning how you want to organize the material you’ve collected in your
research, you can consider various ways of breaking down a topic and analyzing
it.
Classification
and Arrangement: Before you make a formal outline, you first
need to classify your material by separating it into like groupings. Then you need to arrange it in an order that
it makes sense for your topic.
Arrangement is the process of making order from your groupings. Common plans for arranging material are
chronological (for historical/biographical essays), spatial (in terms of geography
or space), and logical (in terms of abstract relationships.)
Organizational Models: A variety of organizational models guide
writers in the overall organization of their papers. Below is a list and explanation of some of
these strategies to use for your whole paper or just for some sections:
– Process: Whenever you explain a process to a reader,
you must be clear, accurate, and organized as you select which points to
explain and in what order they should come.
– Narration: Narratives are a chronological explanation of
events used to tell a story or recount an event.
– Comparison/Contrast: This strategy weighs and balances two or more
ideas, usually for the purpose of selecting one over the other or to analyze
common issues and appreciate differences.
– Classification: When you classify, you break a subject down
into the meaningful parts. You may also
explain how it fits into a larger category or grouping. Your goal is to help readers better
understand the whole.
– Cause/Effect: When you develop a topic in this manner, you
focus on making clear connections between the elements. You establish logical relationships the show
how one factor caused another factor to happen.
– Problem/Solution: Similar to the Cause/Effect organization, you
focus on the connections between various aspects. However, in this model, you are connecting a
problem with a solution.
– Evaluation: A writer evaluates a subject by thinking in
terms of its value, impact, significance, strengths, and weaknesses.
– Arguments: These intend to persuade. Writers use many tactics including reasons,
statistics, and moral/ethical values to convince a reader to share their point
of view.
– Analysis: This model breaks down (analyzes) the topic
so that the reader can better understand and evaluate it.
Writers can
combine strategies in longer papers, depending on their thesis and complexity
of topic. You may find that you use
various types of analytical writing in different portions of your paper. For example, one section may focus on some
comparison and contrast while another section offers a clear explanation of a
certain cause and effect relationship.
18. Develop your detailed outline
After you have narrowed your topic, done your research,
taken your notes, and made preliminary/running/informal outlines, you are ready
to make a formal outline that will guide the writing of your first rough
draft. Your note-taking and the outlines
you have generated are to help you design your writing to support your
thesis. Your aim is to weave your own
ideas and perspectives with your research into a clear, well-written essay.
At this point, evaluate your notes and your working
outline. Your detailed outline should
reflect a thoughtful combination of these.
Your outline will reveal any gaps in your research and whether you have
sufficient material. Below are some
questions to ask yourself at this point:
– “Are
there any topics that have no supporting notes or are poorly support by notes?”
– “Do
I have enough sources to develop my thesis?”
– “Have
I included information on several points of view to show that you’ve fully and
fairly examined all sides of the question?”
– “Are
there any cards/ research notes that don’t fit in your outline?”
– “What
specific details are essential for supporting your thesis?”
– “What
quotes do you want to include?”
(Quotations should be used only to support your ideas, not to fill space
or to reproduce facts.)
Types of Formal
Outlines: Once you have classified
and arranged the elements of your outline and have selected the kind of
organizational model you want to use, you need to pick the kind of outline you
want to use. Your outline is a tool to
help you as you prepare to write your paper.
Three types of outlines are typically used.
Traditional Outline: This outline uses Roman numerals, upper-case
letters, Arabic numerals, and lower-case letters to organize the ideas and to
represent the many levels of topics and subtopics. These points on these outlines are stated in
phrases or one-word comments.
Topic Sentence
Outline: This outline is similar to
the traditional outline but simpler because it contains only major topics
expressed in complete sentences and major subtopics expressed in phrases.
Topic Sentence and
Quotation Outline: This kind of
outline uses topic sentences and quotations to support the topics. It is a useful kind of outline because the
process of creating it pinpoints useful quotations that you will need.
Developing your own
outline: Choose the type of detailed
or formal outline you want to use for your own essay. The more carefully that you develop your
outline, the easier it will be to write your essay.
19. Write first draft #1
Incorporating source
material: As you begin to write, you
will need to decide which of your notes should remain quotations and which
should be paraphrased or summarized.
Quotations should be used only to support your ideas, not to fill space
or to reproduce facts. Use the source’s
exact words only when you cannot paraphrase effectively because the source uses
language in a unique or technical way.
Remember to give credit where credit is due.
When you’re
using a quote from a source, an introduction to the source and a commentary on
it helps make a smooth transition within a paragraph. The introduction to the source can be a few
words or a few sentences, but its purpose is to prepare the reader for the
upcoming quotation. The first time you
mention a writer you should give his or her full name and indicate where the
writer gets his or her authority.
Afterwards, you can use the author’s last name and omit other details.
Here is a list of
words commonly used to introduce quotations:
according to
says
writes
adds
points out
admits
comments
agrees
asserts
claims
believes
confirms
contends
declares
insists
notes
observes
argues
reports
maintains
suggests
A direct quotation
consists of words taken exactly from a source; a paraphrase is your own words.
A commentary on the source discusses the writer’s understanding of the
source. The citation indicates from where the quote or paraphrase was taken.
Re-examining your
Thesis: Your working thesis guided
your note taking and helped direct your outline. It also may have directed your development
model and the way in which you want to present your material and support of
your main idea. As you begin your paper,
re-examine your thesis; make sure it
fits with your supporting evidence, your intent, and your choice for
organization.
Writing the
Introduction: What makes a good
introduction? First, it should present a
brief and fair summary of your main idea.
Your introduction should lead up to and explain your thesis
statement. It also must engage the
reader’s interest; lively and appealing language should pull the reader in with
an interesting opening device. Some
ideas or strategies for beginning your papers:
– Begin
with a short story or anecdote related your topic.
– Begin
with a question, the answer to which is your thesis.
– Begin
with a shocking or dramatic incident related to the thesis.
– Start
with a reference to a historical or biographical fact.
– Start
with a paraphrase or direct quote.
Writing the Body: If you are well-prepared, this part should
not be overwhelming. You have, to guide
you through the process:
– your
thesis
– your
notes
– your
outline
– your
organizational plan
– your
introduction
Your planning should be reflected in your outline, and if
you follow your outline, you should be able to explore, argue, and explain your
thesis because you set it up with topics, topic sentence, subtopics, and
subtopic sentences. Though you will
include direct quotes and paraphrases, the writing should be your own with your
own ideas, perceptions and interpretations of the information. This is the first draft. You will be reviewing its form, content and
style as you prepare your final copy
Writing the
Conclusion: The conclusion comes at
the end of the paper. It must leave the
reader with a sense of completion. No
new information should be introduced at this time. Restate your thesis with different words and
sum up the main points of your argument.
20. Prepare works cited in MLA style
Documenting
means identifying and giving credit to the sources you used for information and
ideas to explain and support your research.
In-text documentation shows the reader where your information came from,
and this enables anyone who reads your paper to evaluate the credibility of
your sources. It also helps you avoid
plagiarism; citations to sources give credit for material written by others
that you used in your essay. A Works
Cited list is also a chance to demonstrate your hard work because you list all
the sources you consulted. Your list of
sources allows others to learn more about your topic.
MLA is the
Modern Language Association of America, a large professional organization of
teachers and scholars who study literature and modern languages. Alternate styles of documentations include
APA, CBE, and the number systems. The
MLA style is most widely used in literature and many humanities fields.
Documentation
has two parts: the Works Cited list and the in-text
citations. The Works Cited list
appears at the end of the essay. It
lists, according to a specific pattern, the books used as references for the
writing of the paper. Books, magazines,
journals, and online resources are combined into an alphabetical list. Generally, the last name of the author is the
first item in each entry and this is used for the alphabetical ordering of the
entries.
The in-text
documentation occurs in the body of the essay.
The writer puts a
citation
immediately after a source has been used.
That citation identifies the exact place in the source where the
information appeared. For specifics
regarding the in-text citation and the Works Cited list, refer to a handbook or
the MLA website (
www.mla.org) The Purdue On-line Writing Lab has some very
helpful pages which includes a tutorial about writing MLA citations. (
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/)
Use your
list of sources that you’ve prepared as you did your research to complete your
Works Cited list. In-text documentation
is how a writer indicates in the body of the essay which work is being quoted
or paraphrased or summarized in a particular sentence or paragraph. The basic model in MLA is that a
parenthetical citation is placed directly after a source is used, pointing the
reader to the Works Cited page. This
system replaces the use of footnotes or endnotes to identify sources. If in
the paragraph you as the writer mention the author of the material you want to
cite, you only need to give the page number.
See the MLA Style
Guide for more help.
21. First draft of presentation plan
Part of the
assignment for this class includes a prepared presentation to the class of the
main points of your research and paper.
This presentation is an oral presentation, like a speech, that includes
some visual aspects. It should not be a
word for word reading of your paper.
Examine your outline, notes, and paper to find the main points that
you’d like to present to the class. You
may want to present the main points without some of the lesser subtopics. Alternately, you may want to focus on a
portion that you found most interesting.
Your visual for the presentation can be a map, chart, timeline, or
object.
22. Peer edit
The peer editor helps the writer review a piece of writing.
This person does not fix all of the mistakes. The peer editor suggests changes
to help the writer fix his/her own mistakes. Sometimes it is easier to spot
another person's mistakes than it is to spot your own.
The Editing Process
Peer editing and revising can be a difficult task for many
students because there is the chance of offending the other student if there
are many corrections to be made. The editing process can be made easier if
proper etiquette and clear communication techniques are used during the
process. Emphasize the importance of constructive criticism and goal of the
class to improve everyone's writing skills and techniques.
Remain Positive
When critiquing another student’s paper positive remarks are
an important aspect of editing and communicating with the other student.
Discuss the positive areas of the paper and which parts were written well.
Provide examples how and why you liked the paper even if there are quite a few
corrections to be made. If the paper has many sentence structure errors but has
accurate spelling or organization, you can discuss with them how well their
spelling is done and how well the paper is organized. Let the other student
know where the sentence structure problems are and give examples of how they
can improve in those areas.
Criticism
The purpose of criticism is to help the other student learn
from their mistakes and improve, not to tear them down and make them feel bad.
It is not necessary to point out every single error. Instead, if there are many
of the same mistakes throughout the paper mark the mistakes and then show the
writer a couple of examples and show them how they can be fixed. For example,
if the writer forgets to capitalize letters at the beginning of every sentence,
it is not necessary to point out every single lowercase letter. Instead just
show them a couple and explain how words at the beginning of new sentences need
to be capitalized.
Point of View
When peer editing a paper it is vital to keep in mind the
thoughts, opinions, and ideas in the paper are those of the writers. Therefore,
you can not make changes in the paper because of the point of view, there has
to be actual problems with the paper. Trying to edit the paper to form it into
another point of view is not proper editing. An example of this would be if the
writer is supporting republican views but you happen to be a democrat, you can
not revise the paper to be of democratic views.
Peer Editing Rubric
|
|
Needs Work
|
Good
|
Excellent
|
|
Content
|
|
|
|
|
Is the paper
interesting and convincing? Does it
hold the reader’s interest.
|
|
|
|
|
Do any ideas seem vague?
What can the writer explain more thoroughly that would help the
reader?
|
|
|
|
|
Can you determine the paper’s audience?
|
|
|
|
|
Writing is well-organized with introduction, body, and
conclusion.
|
|
|
|
|
Does the introduction give the reader “clues” about the
subject of the essay? Does it give an
accurate “road map?”
|
|
|
|
|
Is the conclusion or a mere summary? Does it refer back to the introduction and
help round out the essay?
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Organization
|
|
|
|
|
As a reader, do you sense a structure in the paper? Can you determine a logic behind it?
|
|
|
|
|
Do the transitions between sentences and paragraphs help
connect the ideas?
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Writing Style
|
|
|
|
|
Sentences are clear and concise.
|
|
|
|
|
Are some sections of the paper better written than
others?
|
|
|
|
|
Is the style understandable and appropriate for the
audience?
|
|
|
|
|
Does the writer use strong verbs and avoid using too many
linking verbs and passive voice construction?
|
|
|
|
|
Does the writer use accurate descriptive words and show
consistency of vocabulary throughout the paper?
|
|
|
|
|
Does the writer use words that display confidence in
his/her subject, or tentative expressions such as “I think” or “It seems”?
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Thesis &
Support
|
|
|
|
|
Is the thesis statement easy to find and does it
accurately voice the main idea of the paper?
|
|
|
|
|
Is the thesis supported in the body of the paper?
|
|
|
|
|
Is the thesis statement easy to find and does it
accurately voice the main idea of the paper?
|
|
|
|
|
Is the thesis supported in the body of the paper?
|
|
|
|
|
Is any evidence or support missing?
|
|
|
|
|
Is there any evidence that contradicts the thesis or
should be cut from the paper?
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Research &
Documentation
|
|
|
|
|
Is the research thoroughly documented? Are citations for direct quotes,
paraphrases and summaries accurate and understandable?
|
|
|
|
|
Is the research integrated into the paper? Does the writer have a good balance of
his/her own ideas and materials from other resources?
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Mechanics &
Presentation
|
|
|
|
|
Grammar and spelling are correct.
|
|
|
|
|
Sentences and paragraphs are punctuated properly.
|
|
|
|
|
Typing and presentation are neat.
|
|
|
|
|
Piece of writing is the required length.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Best parts of this
piece of writing
|
|
|
Areas that need
more work
|
|
23. Revise Rough Draft #1
Do not
expect the first draft or your paper to be the finished project. The successful research paper is usually the
circulation of a series of drafts.
Different writers have different strategies and styles. Some will write slowly and come close to a
final draft the first time through.
Others prefer to work in stages and expect to undertake several drafts. In any case, review and rewriting are always
necessary. In this first revision of
your paper, focus on the organization and presentation of ideas.
One helpful
strategy for reviewing your organization is to write a “reverse outline.” When composing this kind of outline, the
writer reads through his paper and writes an outline from the paragraphs and
structure already written in the paper.
This kind of outline helps the writer to determine if his paper is
well-organized.
In revising
the rough draft, you may add, eliminate, and rearrange material. If you wonder if a section is unclear, read
it aloud to yourself or to someone else.
You may have to rewrite a sentence or two; sometimes whole paragraphs
need rewriting. To improve the fluency
and coherence of the paper, you may need to add transitions between sentences
or paragraphs. If the presentation of
ideas seems illogical or confusing, you may find that you can clarify it by
rearranging phrases, clauses, sentences, or paragraphs.
While this
first revision is primarily for organization and clarity or ideas, in later drafts
you should concern yourself with mechanics.
For example, be aware of word choices and that your diction is exact and
accurate. For example, strive for more
precise and economical wording. Also,
correct all technical errors, using a guide to check punctuation, grammar,
spelling, and usage.
Language and Style
While
writing the first draft, writers are often more concerned about the research
and ideas. Revising this first draft
means taking a careful look at how you’ve said what is important.
Effective
writing depends as much on clarity and readability as on content. The organization and development of your
ideas, the unity and coherence of your presentation, and your command of
sentence structure, grammar, and diction are all important, as are the
mechanics of writing – capitalization, spelling, punctuation and so on.
Careful
writing of research papers requires that students are careful to avoid
disrespectful or inappropriate generalizations that would be offensive to any
specific groups of people. The language
you use, your “voice,” will be determined by your topic, your purpose and your
audience. Following are some strategies
to remember when revising your paper:
1. To make your
writing livelier, avoid using passive voice wherein something is done to the
subject as opposed to the subject performing the action.
2. So that the tone
of your writing will be more objective, do not use the personal pronoun “I” or
preface your remarks with “in my opinion” or “I think.”
3. Do not use slang,
jargon, or inflated overly inflated formal language. You don’t want your essay to sound too
informal or stiff and hard to understand.
Remember that research writing must impress by its ideas and how well
they are presented, not by its use of fancy words.
4. Sometimes specific
terminology or subject-specific references must be used. Define or explain these references, where
necessary. Knowing your audience will
help you determine how much you need to explain. Explain your term the first time you use it, so
that you can use it regularly throughout your paper.
5. Write with
confidence. Don’t weaken your paper with
hesitant words like might, maybe, in my opinion, or I think. In general, you should come to a conclusion
about your topic and state it clearly.
6. Be careful to
avoid using sexist or other discriminatory language. Your language must never offend or sound
derogatory.
Research Paper
Checklist
Areas to look at:
I. Structure and
content
A. Introduction (Is it effective?)
B. Hypothesis (Does it answer the research? Is it strong and clear?)
C. Organization
(Is it logical? Appropriate?)
D. Development
(Does the text develop the thesis?)
E. Integration of quotations (Are they done
smoothly and clearly?)
F. Conclusion
(Is it effective?)
II. Documentation
A. Quality of research (Is it appropriate?)
B. Quantity of research (Is there enough?)
C. Quotation form (Is it correct?)
D. In-text documentation (Is the form correct?)
E. Works Cited list (Is the form correct?)
III. Style (Has the writer looked for audience and
purpose, voice and tone?)
IV. Format (Has the writer followed the quidelines for
format?)
V. Guidelines for
revision.
Checklist for
Proofreading
1. Take a blank piece
of paper and move it slowly down the paper, from beginning to end.
2. Take a blank piece
of paper and move it slowly up the paper, from the end to the beginning.
3. Read your paper
aloud.
4. Read through your
paper again, focusing on those areas that you know you have trouble with.
5. Read your paper to
a friend or family member.
6. Do all the above, put your paper aside, and proofread it
again a day later.
24. Finalize presentation plans
Giving a
presentation before classmates can be intimidating. It helps to have a carefully though out
plan. Consider the highlights of your
topic’s paper. These are the details you
will want to share with your class. Keep
in mind the format requirements:
1. You must have
something visual to share with the class.
This can be a poster, picture, or an object.
2. Your presentation
must be at least 10 minutes long, but not longer than 20 minutes.
Some pointers to make
your presentation go smoothly:
1. Prepare yourself
in advance.
2. Organize your
presentation in simple sections.
3. Practice
beforehand.
4. Talk, don’t read.
5. Don’t speak too
quickly.
6. Don’t bury the
class in too many quotations or too many statistics.
7. Make eye contact
with all of the class, looking from the font to the back.
8. Have a clear
conclusion.
25. Prepare visuals for presentation
Any visual
aids should emphasize your ideas without distracting the audience.
Visual aids add impact and interest to a presentation. They
enable you to appeal to more than one sense at the same time, thereby
increasing the audience's understanding and retention level. With pictures, the
concepts or ideas you present are no longer simply words - but words plus
images. The chart below cites the effectiveness of visual aids on audience
retention.
People tend to eye-minded, and the impacts visual aids bring
to a presentation are, indeed, significant. The studies, below, reveal
interesting statistics that support these findings:
- In many studies,
experimental psychologists and educators have found that retention of
information three days after a meeting or other event is six times greater
when information is presented by visual and oral means than when the
information is presented by the spoken word alone.
- Studies by educational
researchers suggest that approximately 83% of human learning occurs
visually, and the remaining 17% through the other senses - 11% through
hearing, 3.5% through smell, 1% through taste, and 1.5% through touch.
- The studies suggest that
three days after an event, people retain 10% of what they heard from an
oral presentation, 35% from a visual presentation, and 65% from a visual
and oral presentation.
The use of visual aids, then, is essential to all
presentations. Without them, the impact of your presentation may leave the
audience shortly after the audience leaves you. By preparing a presentation
with visual aids that reinforce your main ideas, you will reach your audience
far more effectively, and, perhaps, continue to "touch" them long
after the presentation ends. (from
http://www.osha.gov/doc/outreachtraining/htmlfiles/traintec.html
)
26. Rough Draft #2
The purpose
of a second rough draft is to work out all of the organizational difficulties
and mechanical errors. This is the
product of the revisions and editing of your first rough draft. For most writers, the bulk of the changes
will occur between the first and second rough drafts. Usually, only minor
changes are made between the second draft and the final draft.
Editing Checklist
If you are not sure about an error, take the time to look it
up in a writer’s handbook.
1.
Check for run-on sentences and fragment.
Are all your sentences “complete sentences?” Does every sentence have a subject, verb, and
complete thought?
2.
Check every verb. Do subjects and
verbs agree and is the proper verb tense used?
Have you eliminated all “There is/are” etc. sentences?
3.
Use the dictionary or spell-checker to check for spelling errors. Remember, the spell checker sill not catch
errors wherein you use the wrong word.
4.
Get out your personal list of errors.
Check your writing for any of these errors.
5.
Check for punctuation. (If
unsure, use a handbook to check for proper punctuation usage.)
6.
Be aware of all pronouns. Do they
match their antecedents?
7.
Look for any missing words by reading it carefully aloud.
8.
Check modifiers.
27. Finalize works cited page
Review the
guidelines and instructions from WEEK 10,
Step 20. For further help with your
in-text citations, check the handbook you received for this class and any
on-line sources that were mentioned.
Your works cited page should have the following format:
– Title
your page(s): Works Cited
– Sources
are listed alphabetically by the author’s last name
– In
the case of a source without a listed author, the title of the article is
considered in determining its place in the listing instead of the author’s last
name.
– Double-check
the rules for punctuation and capitalization
– 1
inch margins
– Single-spaced
– Header
with your last name and page number
– Page
number continues from the text of the paper
– First
line of the citation is at the edge of the margin.
– Second
line of the citation is indented
28. Proofread your paper.
This is
your final opportunity to work through your paper. Hopefully by this time, you’ve made necessary
corrections in your content, organization, and style. Many times, however, as we read our work
multiple times, various sections will stick out. These portions may not be written as clearly
as others; they may lack in organization or information. Even though rewriting is part of the revision
process, do not let a poorly written section stand as it is. Fix it.
On the other hand, resist the temptation to rewrite large portions,
completely rework your organization, or add significant pieces of information.
Proofreading
has been made easier with “Spell Check” on our computers. However, even this helpful tool will not tell
you if you have the wrong word altogether.
You may have meant to type “must” but typed “most” instead. Spell Check will not correct that
mistake. Sometimes the auto-correct
function will change a word. In other
words, using the tools with your word processing software is a great help and
time-saver but it does not guarantee a flawless paper.
Check for the following as you proofread:
– Spelling
– Punctuation
– Capitalization
– Complete
sentences (no fragments or run-ons)
– Subject-verb
agreement
– Consistency
in verb tenses
– Pronoun-antecedent
agreement
– Proper
use of quotation marks
29. Presentation
During WEEK
9 (Steps 24 & 25) you finalized the preparations for your presentation and
arranged for your visual piece. You’ve
read and re-read your paper enough times that you have mastered the content of
your subject. Be proud of all the hard
work you’ve done as you confidently give your presentation.
(from Step 24)
Some pointers to make
your presentation go smoothly:
1. Prepare yourself
in advance.
2. Organize your
presentation in simple sections.
3. Practice beforehand.
4. Talk, don’t read.
5. Don’t speak too
quickly.
6. Don’t bury the
class in too many quotations or too many statistics.
7. Make eye contact
with all of the class, looking from the font to the back.
8. Have a clear
conclusion.
30. Final Draft
With the
help of current technology, preparing the final copy of a paper does not mean
having to type it all over, possibly for the third or fourth time. All of the editing functions in our word
processing software is an incredible time-saver and also allows us to present
polished versions of our hard work.
Below are the guidelines for the format for your papers
In MLA, title pages
are optional, but I would like you to prepare one.
– Insert
the title (centered on the page) 2 inches down from the top
– Do
not underline or italicize the title, unless you are including the title of a
book, etc.
– Put
the word “by” (not capitalized) an inch down from the title
– In
the next line, type your full name.
– Another
inch down from that, type the name of this class (Writing 3: Research & Writing); on the next line
type the instructor’s name (Mrs. Prichard); on the final line type the date the
paper was handed in.
Paper formatting:
– 1
inch margins
– Double-spaced
– Header
in the upper margin on the right side:
Your last name, page number
– First
page:
o Header
information
o Left
side: Your name, Instructor’s name,
class name, date (each on a separate line and double spaced)
o Title
Example:
