30 Steps to a Research Paper

30 STEPS TO A RESEARCH PAPER

A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR PLANNING YOUR RESEARCH PAPER

 
 

30 STEPS TO A RESEARCH PAPER

1.  Understanding the thesis-driven paper

Definition: A thesis-driven research paper is similar to a long essay. The paper will have a strong, arguable thesis statement in the introduction. (A thesis is a “proposition maintained by argument” - American Heritage College). A thesis can be described as a simple equation: 

Subject/Topic + Opinion/Stand = Thesis Statemnt

A “thesis” is a statement of what you will prove in the paper. It is the main idea, the central point.  Every thesis statement should be the “solution” to a problem, the “answer” to a question. A thesis-driven paper requires you to take a stand on an issue and then defend that stand.  A good thesis statement should be provable, which means it is also a statement that can be disproved.  Unlike a personal essay, which doesn’t require outside research because it details your feelings and opinions on a topic, a thesis-driven research paper requires you to search out the solution to a problem that you have proposed in the paper’s thesis statement and to present what you have learned through research in a well-written, coherent paper.  Below are some tips for writing papers with a thesis:

• It is important to keep in mind that you are not just picking a topic, but rather arguing for a thesis that is related to the topic. If you choose to write on a topic, you would not write about a range of issues related to that topic. Instead, you should argue for or against a thesis regarding the topic.
• In arguing for a thesis, you should give the strongest reasons that you can think of in order to show your reader that you have thought through all of the relevant issues. Your reasons may include any relevant scientific data, statistics, the views of recognized experts, observation and experience, and undeniable truths. Be sure to provide a clear and logical argument that supports your position or view.
• While writing this type of paper, it is essential that you raise the strongest objections against your thesis that you can think of. In other words, be the “devil's advocate” with your own argument. In your paper you should reply to your opponent's questions and objections.   

All of the paragraphs should support or prove your thesis, and your paper should conclude with a statement of solution and/or suggestions for resolution. All language should be formal- NO “I”, “you”, “me”, “our”, etc.; in other words, do not use pronouns-name the person of whom you are speaking. Do not use contractions, slang or abbreviations.  The argument against “I” is that it is unnecessary fluff and draws too much attention to the process of writing and to the author. A paper should be about the historical subject, not about the author's feelings or opinions.

 

2.  Identify possible subjects

            The subject of a research paper is the larger, more general area of investigation.  Sometimes subject and topic are used as synonyms.  They are related, but subject refers to the broader area into which a topic fits.  A topic is a small piece of a large subject.  For example, a research subject might be “women writers,” but the narrower topic would be “Willa Cather.”

            Generally, the subject is a broad area about which the researcher begins to ask questions.  A broad subject helps you begin your preliminary exploration.  Simple methods for finding a subject are brainstorming, clustering, or listing.

            Brainstorming: Using a clean sheet of paper, being to write down whatever words come to mind in whatever order they come.  Make lists or jot down phrases. 

            Clustering:  This exercise requires you to arrange your brainstorming in groups that help to relate or connect the ideas to your thesis or subject.

            Listing: Similar to brainstorming, you start with a general or large subject and then write down at least 30 smaller, related subjects.

            One strategy is to give yourself 10 – 15 minutes to one of the writing activities above.  If a satisfying subject doesn’t come to the surface, try another activity.

            The above strategies can help you to find the broader subject of interest or to narrow and to define your topic.  Sometimes the best way to discover workable and valuable topics in your subject area is to read from a variety of sources about your subject.

3.  Read general sources

            General sources give wider-ranging information.  Examples of general sources are articles from encyclopedias, visual sources (maps, photographs, charts, or the like), or a website.  Defining the purpose of the search helps the researcher guide and narrows the search.  Choosing a topic usually means deciding to focus on one aspect of the subject to narrow the field of investigation.  Once you have settled on a subject, it is important to consider your purpose for doing research before deciding on a possible topic.

4.  Narrow the subject

            Help for selecting your topic:

            -- Free-write for 10 minutes on a separate paper about the subject you are considering.

            -- When you have finished, read for other topics that might work well as a focus.

            -- Review the list and determine which most interests you.

           

5.  Select your topic

            Once you’ve narrowed the subject, consider the questions about this subject that you would like answered.  A writer usually sets out to do research in order to answer a question or several questions.  As the writer of a research paper, you will use these questions to help you choose a topic that can develop into a working hypothesis.  Framing a research question is a way of focusing the main direction of the research; it expresses what you want to find out.  Many times, background reading helps the writer to discover and develop more research questions.  General reading about a topic will help the writer to narrow a topic that is initially too broad or general.

            Research questions and point of view:  A good way to formulate good  research questions is to look at several points of view on the same issue.  Your point of view is your opinion on the topic.  Your point of view will be used to shape the kind of essay you write. 

           

6.  Form leading research questions

            After reading some general information about a subject, you will probably have some interesting questions already in mind.  It is important to think about the questions to make sure that they fit with your thesis.  These questions will help direct your writing and your research.    

What makes a good question? 

-- You want to answer it.

-- It feels like the right size.  (too broad and the research will take too long; too narrow and you will not find enough material.)

-- Avoid questions that can be answered simply “yes” or “no.”

-- Avoid only questions whose answers are purely factual.  Think of questions that begin with “Why” or “How.”

            The purpose of good questions is that they lead the researcher to a synthesis of information.  This means that the researcher gathers information from a variety of sources – often sources that contradict one another or take differing points of view – and brings it together, along with his or her own thinking, to a new formulation by asking a new question.

           

7.  Formulate working thesis

            Once you have a list of questions, you are ready to formulate a hypothesis.  Many writers believe this is the most important step in organizing a successful research paper.  A good thesis creates the plan or map of everything that will follow in the paper.  However, as you begin, you should think of the thesis as a hypothesis or “working thesis.”  You haven’t yet done the research necessary to collect all the information on your topic or to answer your questions.  If you did, you wouldn’t need to do the research!  The research should help you to continue to shape the thesis.  Although your working thesis may prove accurate, the most exciting discoveries occur when you let the research lead you to new territory.

            Thesis:  A proper thesis has two parts, the topic and your point of view on the topic.  The difference between a topic and a thesis is the writer’s point of view.  The thesis must cover the entire essay.  A successful working thesis should: identify the narrow topic that paper will explore; state the writer’s opinion; label the writer’s point of view, or “angle” on the topic; suggest the method or direction the research will take; be flexible enough to change in response to information and ideas gleaned from sources.

            Answer each of the following questions until you reach your own working thesis:

            a. What narrow topic will your paper explore?

            b. What is your opinion so far?

            c. What is your point of view or “angle?”

            d. What method will I use?  (Or in what direction do you plan to go?)

            e. What might you have to be flexible about?

            f. What is your working thesis in a single sentence?

8.  Making Your Research & Writing Plan

            The key to success with research is planning.  You do not always know what kind of reference materials you will find or how long it will take to pull your materials together into a final thesis, outline, rough draft and final copy.  It is important to be aware of the all of the steps necessary to write your paper in the given amount of time.  Working with a calendar and writing your own plan will help you to stay on top of the process.

            One of the first, and most helpful, steps is to make your own calendar or chart with assignments listed and your own plans for getting research and writing done.  When making a research plan, consider the following questions:

1.      What kind of sources will I need to find?

2.      Are my resources easily available?  Do I need to request any from other libraries?

3.      Will my research require any interviews that need to be scheduled?

4.      How long do I estimate that it will take to read the materials? 

5.      Am I a faster reader/researcher or writer?  Where should I leave time for more work in my weaker areas?

6.      Do I work better at home or at school?

7.      Should I set personal dates for being 1/3- or 1/2- way through the rough draft?

            Your topic and thesis will help to determine what kind of research will be required for your paper.  The requirements will vary for each student.  The following questions will help you determine exactly where to go next with your research.

            1.  What is your research subject and to what topic have you narrowed the subject?

            2.  From what source (book, article, and website) did you originally use to find this

subject?

            3.  What is the key/leading research question that you are posing?

            4.  Where do you anticipate finding the most information on this topic?  The most current

information?  The most credible and trustworthy information?

5.  Will the resources include primary and secondary sources?

6.  Will any interviews or tours of locations be helpful for your research?

            This proposal consists of four paragraphs.  Identify in your own words that goal or purpose of each paragraph.  Do you think this is a successful proposal?  List three reasons why or why not.

9.  Writing Your Proposal

            The proposal is a brief written statement in which you explain to your teacher and yourself what your goals are for the research assignment.  The proposal helps the teacher to evaluate if you’re heading in the right direction.  Like a contract or agreement, the proposal demonstrates what the student is thinking about the topic and what preparations have been made for research.  Writing out your proposed plans also helps prevent procrastination.

            The proposal functions as a map for the process of writing the research paper.  It presents a brief introduction to the subject, explains the thesis and shows the direction in which the writer plans to go to answer the research question(s) and support the thesis.  The writer must do some preliminary reading and research to provide the information a good proposal offers.

            The ingredients for a good proposal are:

– brief background information for the subject and chosen topic

– a working thesis

– awareness of the level of the audience

– a plan for locating the appropriate sources

– a timeline for completing the assignment

– acknowledgement of any difficulties or challenges for the project.

After reviewing the ingredients for a good proposal, write a proposal for your own research topic.  Before you begin, review all of your work in the previous steps.  This paper should be a clear, effective single-page, business-like document. 

10.  Brainstorm/ Cluster/Free-write

            A good way to start your process is to find out how much you already know about your topic.  Discovering how much you know about a topic reveals how much you still need to discover.  It helps to establish a baseline for your work.  Below are some helpful strategies:

– Brainstorm, Cluster, or Free-Write for 10 minutes about the topic you’ve chosen.  Include facts and details that you already know.  Group information that specifically applies to your chosen thesis.

– Ten Questions to Gauge Someone’s Knowledge:    Using the subject from your own research proposal, write a list of ten qualities you think would gauge someone’s knowledge about that area.

– Interviews:  Ask a variety of people for their thoughts and impressions about this topic.  “Test” your thesis on them for reactions and ideas.

Checklist for Subject, Topic & Thesis

r Have you found an appropriate subject by exploring your subject via brainstorming or clustering?

r Is your topic specific enough?

r Have you read some general sources to help you find a topic?

r Do you know the purpose for the intended topic?

r Is your topic interesting to you, and will it interest readers?

r Do you have a good research question (or several questions)?

r Do you understand the differences between fact and opinion?

r Does your topic idea reveal your own opinion?

r Have you begun to analyze your topic?

r Do you have a working thesis?

r Have you written a research proposal that is a legitimate statement of your intentions for the research paper?

11. Find sources (print & electronic)

A source of factual data usually provides one of the following:

– exact text of a written, spoken, or visual composition

– statistics or measurements

– a summary report of an experience

– information

When a source provides a paper with ideas, it is often providing one of the following:

– a particular claim made by another writer about the topic you are addressing, along with the reasoning that supports the claim

– a general concept – a term, theory, or approach – that has appeared in discussion of other topics and that you apply to your own.

            To make use of a source in any way, a writer must take a stance towards the sources.  The three basic stances you can take toward a source are “yes,” “no,” and “maybe.”  You can affirm or accept what you read; you can reject or disagree with the material; you can qualify or modify the source and say “yes, but ..”

            You can find sources in many ways.  As you explore sections of your library and the internet, you will find a variety of material that will help you support your thesis.  Using search engines on the internet (Google, Lycos, Ask.com, Bing, Yahoo, etc.) or library catalogs, you can find reputable books and websites.  Below is a list of possible sources of information:

·         Books (reference, fiction, non-fiction)

·         Specialized Reference Tools (dictionaries, encyclopedias, almanacs, indexes, atlases)

·         Periodicals (magazines, journals, newspapers)

·         Internet (many of the same materials listed above can be found in electronic versions)

·         Non-print sources  (museums, photographs, recordings, films, historic sites, galleries, community experts)

·         Interviews & Questionnaires  (individuals, groups, organizations)

Retrieving Sources:  Most libraries have switched from the multiple drawers of a card catalog to electronic catalogs that can be accessed from any computer.  While each system is not identical, the basic search options are the same.  You can search for subjects, titles, and authors.  Many library catalogs also allow you to refine your search.  If you can’t find a source, someone from the circulation desk or a reference librarian can help you locate a specific book or periodical.

            Most people are familiar with search engines for the internet. Sites such as Google, Bing, Ask.com, or Yahoo offer services that let you look up almost anything.  Google Scholar searches academic publications.  Scirus.com searches scientific sources; iSeek is another general studies search engine.

  

12.  Evaluate sources

            Finding a source is only the beginning of the research.  More importantly, you must evaluate the source – that is, decide whether it is reliable.

            Primary and Secondary Sources:  Primary sources are first or original documents or materials.  Sources called “primary” generally appear in papers as a source of un-interpreted factual data.  The following can be primary sources:  manuscripts (diaries, letters, unpublished material such as first drafts of poems, early books, and other special handwritten documents); government documents (census reports, maps, tax records, property deeds, wills, Bureau of Statistics listings); photograph collections; sound recordings; film, television and radio archives; artifacts (items found in museums).  Places can be primary sources.  For example, the terrain of a Civil War battlefield would be a primary source.  Also, the large room at Ellis Island where immigrants waited   to hear the verdicts of customs agents would be considered a primary source.

            Secondary sources are those that come from a primary source; they rely on primary sources for information but present another’s interpretation or application of the primary source.  For example, a biography of Thomas Jefferson might include primary sources (the Declaration of Independence or personal letters) but will give the writer’s own interpretation of Mr. Jefferson’s live.

Specific primary sources are often difficult for student researchers to find.  They may be rare, fragile, or in distant and restricted places.  Therefore, many researchers rely on good quality secondary sources that are more widely available.  Remember, that a secondary source CAN be the source for the original texts of primary sources.  The Declaration of Independence presented as a reprint in a history book may still be referenced as a primary source.    A biography of a famous leader may include copies of letters; these would be considered primary sources.

Area libraries may be your greatest repository (collection) of materials.  Often local libraries have agreements with nearby communities allowing you to access and borrow books from them, too.  Additionally, college libraries may have helpful materials that you can use in the building or can borrow.  Don’t overlook the personal libraries of persons who are especially knowledgeable on your topic.

Using the Internet:

            The persuasiveness of a paper depends in part on the reliability of the sources being used.  Some sources, especially on the internet, have never been checked by authorities in the field, are out of date, or are likely to be inaccurate or incomplete.  They may be influence by a bias, a profit motive, or a current fad.

            Assessing internet sources:  The best way to locate reliable sources is to go through a web site of a scholarly library that gives you access to databases, texts, journals, collections of statistics, maps, paintings, and many other sources available through these library “portals” are chosen for scholarly authority and reliability.  Generally, use websites to supplement and confirm other sources.

When you use websites:

– Give priority to those that list their sources or at least an advisory board of professionals who judge the material.

– If the site doesn’t list its sources but still seems serious (no carelessness, bias, commercial interests), check out the author’s professional position, other written materials, or a respectable institution base.

– Don’t use as a source a site that gives no author or supervisory editor.

– When the site is subject to change by other readers (for example Wikipedia), try to find a more stable source.

Guidelines for evaluating print and online sources:

Usefulness.  Ask yourself, “Am I using the source to shape my topic, or am I letting the source dictate how the paper is developing.”  If it is a book, read the table of contents, scan the index, and read the appropriate sections that link to your own subject.  Read the preface, introduction, and appendix or notes.

Reliability.  Is your source objective or does it support a personal or p political bias?  Here are some tips:

– Who is the author?  Does the author have credentials or a reputation within the field?

– Is the source up-to-date?  Facts and opinions are continually being reassessed and revised.  Check the date of the source, especially of your topic is on current events.

– Does the piece have a strong point of view?  If so, does the author admit to bias? Does the author balance the viewpoint by comparing it to other positions on the subject? 

– Is the source a primary or secondary source? 

Thoroughness or range of sources.  Have you collected a mixture of types of sources?  Primary and secondary, scholarly and journalistic, books, periodicals, nonprint sources – a mixture is necessary for a well-balanced paper.  Do not depend on only one source, even if you think it is excellent.

Complete article or summary?  Have you read a complete source, or is it a shortened version.  Relying entirely on the brief excerpt could lead to an incorrect or incomplete result.

Point of View:  Few writers write from a purely non-biased perspective.  You can determine a writer’s point of view evaluating the details the writer includes or omits, placement of information, tone of voice, and use of negative or positive language.

13.  Preparing a working bibliography

            A working bibliography is a list of the sources you are collecting and evaluating for your research paper.  When the paper is completed, you will be creating a formal list to appear at the back of your essay, identifying all the sources from which you took your information.  The working bibliography, then, is an in-progress list of the sources you’re are locating and using.  It is much easier to keep track of your sources as you find them than to go back and create the list after you’ve started writing.  Save time and frustration by copying down all the necessary information about each source as you locate and retrieve it.

            Copy down important source information for each source you investigate.  Write your information either in a notebook or on a note card.  Copy the following information for each source:

– all author’s names, or editor’s names

– the exact title of the article, including subtitles or headlines

– the exact title of the magazine, newspaper, or journal in which you found it

– the complete date: 

§  month, day, and year (newspaper or weekly)

§  month and year (monthly)

§  other date information for quarterly or semiannual publications

– the issue or volume number, if there is one

– the pages on which the article appears

– for a print encyclopedia, the name of the encyclopedia, the title of the article you found, the date when the edition of the encyclopedia was published, the volume, and the pages; for an online encyclopedia, use the URL.

– the date, time and place of any conversations or interviews.

– location of the book  (library, school, home, etc.)

            Good reading and diligent note taking are essential for forming and supporting your working thesis.  You must learn to read carefully and selectively.  Not everything you read will be helpful.  Another key aspect of researching is knowing when to skim and when to take more time with a text.  While reading, you will want to take down notes.  Some notes will be paraphrases of the material put in your own words.  Some will be specific word for word quotes that you intend to use.

14.  Research & take notes

            Having clear research questions helps to bring a focus to the reading.  Reading selectively means reading with a purpose.  When you know what questions you want answered, you know what sections can be skimmed.

Taking notes helps you collect information.  Write down material (facts, details, ideas) that help you expand, clarify, or support your thesis.  Also include any points that disagree with it, so that you can argue against them.  It is very important to be specific in your notes to avoid confusion or errors. 

General guidelines on taking notes:

– Include historical or biographical background information.

– Include ideas that support or develop your thesis.

– Include quotable words, phrases, or short passages that you want to use word for word.  Be careful about copying these sections accurately and noting the pages from which they are taken.

– Include statistics that can be used to support or develop your ideas.

– Include scientific or technical information.  What you copy should be related to your thesis.  Keep track of facts, but select only those that will help you defend your own ideas.

Ways to take notes:

Note cards:  Note cards are often used when collecting information because they are a flexible system which helps you organize your information once the research is complete.  You can carry the note cards with you, spreading them out on a table and organizing them into piles.  Larger cards, 5x7 as opposed to 3x5, give extra room for your notes.  You will need a different note card for each note.  It is important to include the basic information about the source and to write neatly and legibly.

Notebook:  Many students prefer to keep their research in a book because they are afraid of losing note cards.  Also, due to their personal organizational style, they prefer to see large amounts of information at a time rather than smaller portions.  As with note cards, it is important to organize your notes as you take them.  Some writers like to keep all of the notes from a singular source together.  Others prefer to organize them according to ideas, with separate ideas per page.

Electronic Notes:  Computers and electronic notepads can be convenient.  Some researchers prefer to type their notes into word processing software.  The advantages of computer note-taking is that you can “copy and paste” and move sections around as you organize.  As with note cards or a notebook, organization is a key to success.  Some people will make a table that serves as a template for recording information.  A separate document for each main idea will enable an organization of the materials.

Example: 

Subject
Author
Title
Date
Page #, or URL
Comments/ Notes

Photocopies:  While this is not note-taking, it is a method of compiling information.  Sometimes sources are not available for long periods of time.  Many libraries have sections of resources that can only be used in the library.  Photocopying articles, graphs, maps, etc. for later use is a helpful strategy when collecting information. Longer internet articles with a large quantity of useful material can be printed and used later.

Avoiding Plagiarism:  Plagiarism is using someone’s words, ideas, or concepts without giving them credit.  It is the act of passing off the information, ideas, or words of another as your won, by failing to acknowledge their source.  Plagiarus means “kidnapper” and in antiquity, plagiarii were pirates who sometimes stole children.  When you plagiarize, as several commentators have observed, you steal the brainchild of another. (Harvey, 29) 

            In other words, citing your information is giving credit where credit is due.  Most people plagiarize accidentally.  However, some students become either lazy or confused and don’t do a thorough job.

            In order to know what material to document, you also need to know what not to document.  It is not necessary to document facts that most people accept as true or opinions held by a large number of people.  Common knowledge refers to facts or ideas that most people know, even if you’ve just learned it.  This information does not need to be cited.  In general, you must document

– an opinion or fact that is not common knowledge

– the specific words or expressions used or the organization imposed by someone else

– original research, including statistics, surveys, and other findings.

Common forms of plagiarism:  More common than wholesale copying of materials is piecemeal or “mosaic” plagiarism, in which a student mixes words or ideas of a source with his or her own words and ideas, or mixes uncited words and ideas from several sources into a composite, or mixes properly cited uses of a source with improperly or uncited uses.  Plagiarism commonly takes one of the following forms:

– Uncited data or information

– Uncited idea, whether a specific claim or a general concept

– An unquoted but verbatim phrase or passage

– An uncited structure or organizing strategy.

Citing sources reliably:  Your reader must be able to see that your sources are reliable that your have been responsible in your use of them.  You must make clear what information comes from you and what comes from your sources.  You should cite your sources on the following situations:

– Whenever you use factual material – ex. data, information, testimony, or a report – that you found in a source.  You need to make clear to your readers who gathered the information and where to find its original form.

– Whenever you use ideas – e.g. claims, interpretations, conclusions, or lines of reasoning – arrived at by another person, so your readers know that your are summarizing thoughts formulated by someone else.

– Whenever you use a special concept, term, or theory that you found in a source.

– Whenever you make use of a source passage’s distinctive structure, organizing strategy, or method.

– Whenever you quote verbatim (word for word)

If it seems that you have an excess of citations, you may be citing “common knowledge,” citing inefficiently, or giving too much of another’s ideas and need to generate some of your own.

            Careful citing of your sources is:

– a service:  You’ve done the research and are letting them know where to find this valuable information. 

– a moral obligation:  You are letting your readers know where the credit is due for the information you’ve given.  This is a fair treatment for others who have done the work.

– an argumentative advantage:  Using the information, both facts and ideas, contributed by scholars and experts gives weight and influence to your paper. 

15.  Paraphrase, summarize, and quote sources

            As you take notes, you should try to quote rather than paraphrase whenever possible.  You can always translate quotations into paraphrases or summaries later, but you cannot transform paraphrases or summaries into quotations.

            Paraphrasing:  A paraphrase is an expression in your own words of an idea or passage written by someone else.  In a good paraphrase, you show that you understand what has been written by changing the language while remaining faithful to the original meaning.  A paraphrase is always documented; although the words are yours, the ideas are those of the original author.  Paraphrasing can be difficult because words, phrases, and syntax tend to stay in your head.    Some guidelines to help you paraphrase:

– Begin by reading carefully and thinking about what you have read.

– Cover the material that you are paraphrasing with a piece of paper so that you can’t see it.

– Paraphrase the material.

– Paraphrase your paraphrase.

– Check what you’ve written against the original, and make more changes where necessary.

– If you are really struck, quote the original word or phrase, but only if you simply can’t put it into your own words.

Summarizing:  A summary is an outline of a document in which you reduce a source text to its main point and aspects.  It is shorter than a paraphrase.  A summary may be done in words, phrases, or sentences.  A summary should be accurate and concise.  When doing a summary, you should include:

– the article or chapter’s main ideas

– the major ideas supporting or explaining these main ideas.

Exact Quotations:  Quoting involves copying the exact words of a writer – word for word, punctuation for punctuation.  Although you should quote frequently in your notes, in your final papers you should quote only when there is no other way to represent adequately the language or ideas of the original source.  It is necessary to quote in certain cases:

– Authoritative and/or famous people

– Writers and poets.  Quoting is often necessary to preserve their unique use of language.

– Special terminology:  scientific, legal, or technical language.  It is almost impossible to paraphrase this information, and it is too dense to summarize.

Ellipsis:  Quoting too much can make the reader lose the sense of your argument.  Your paper can become a mass of quotations rather than a means to convey your own ideas.  You can use ellipses to shorten your quotations when they contain more information than you really need to make your point.  An ellipsis is three dots that indicate that words have been omitted from a quotation.

Brackets can be used to insert explanatory material not part of the initial quote.  They are used to make the quote clear.

16.  Make outlines:  preliminary, running,  informal, formal

Preliminary outline:  The preliminary outline is written before you begin taking notes.  Once you’ve determined your topic, your thesis, and your leading questions, you should write a very general outline of the main points.  This outline will direct you to your sources and will determine what kind of information you will need.

Running Outline:  The “running outline” lists your ideas as they come to you and as you research.  The primary purpose of the running outline is to keep track of the information you compile.  As you read, pick out the major topics, keeping track of sub-topics.  A running outline can be formed before you begin taking notes or as you take notes.  A running outline is used to keep track of your research to help you understand what you have read and to make a plan for what you’re going to write. 

Informal Outlines:  Combining the preliminary outline (what you plan to research) and the running outline (what you’re discovered while researching), the informal outline is a “work in process” that helps to form the skeleton of your paper, the formal outline.  As you read and compile information, you will adjust your preliminary outline to reflect your research.  You may find more (or less) information than you anticipated.  You may also find that your research does not agree with what you thought you would find.

Formal Outlines:  Looking at the elements of your running and informal outlines should help you choose the right formal outline for your essay.

Types of Formal Outlines:  Once you have classified and arranged the elements of your outline and have selected the kind of organizational model you want to use, you need to pick the kind of outline you want to use.  Your outline is a tool to help you as you prepare to write your paper.  Three types of outlines are typically used.

Traditional Outline:  This outline uses Roman numerals, upper-case letters, Arabic numerals, and lower-case letters to organize the ideas and to represent the many levels of topics and subtopics.  These points on these outlines are stated in phrases or one-word comments.

Topic Sentence Outline:  This outline is similar to the traditional outline but simpler because it contains only major topics expressed in complete sentences and major subtopics expressed in phrases.

Topic Sentence and Quotation Outline:  This kind of outline uses topic sentences and quotations to support the topics.  It is a useful kind of outline because the process of creating it pinpoints useful quotations that you will need.

Developing your own outline:  Choose the type of running outline you want to use for your won essay and develop it.  Remember, a running outline is a less formal outline that you write as you do your research.  With your running outline and thesis in front of you, make sure you’re on the right track.  Sometimes, adjustments need to be made to the thesis or the direction of the research.

Checklist of Progress

 Have you made a running outline of the main ideas in your essay?

 Have you classified your main ideas in larger groupings?

Are you aware of the variety of development models that can help you arrange your ideas meaningfully?

Have you made a formal outline of your essay?

17.  Organize information

            The best way to prepare for the difficult task of writing is to make an outline which is an organized listing of the major topics and subtopics of your thesis.  An outline provides you with a guide to follow when you are writing your paper.  Outlines act as the “skeleton” of the essay’s body, giving it shape and definition.  Outlines normally evolve from lists of topics and/or research questions. 

                        As you’re planning how you want to organize the material you’ve collected in your research, you can consider various ways of breaking down a topic and analyzing it.

Classification and Arrangement:  Before you make a formal outline, you first need to classify your material by separating it into like groupings.  Then you need to arrange it in an order that it makes sense for your topic.  Arrangement is the process of making order from your groupings.  Common plans for arranging material are chronological (for historical/biographical essays), spatial (in terms of geography or space), and logical (in terms of abstract relationships.)

Organizational Models:  A variety of organizational models guide writers in the overall organization of their papers.  Below is a list and explanation of some of these strategies to use for your whole paper or just for some sections: 

– Process:  Whenever you explain a process to a reader, you must be clear, accurate, and organized as you select which points to explain and in what order they should come.

– Narration:  Narratives are a chronological explanation of events used to tell a story or recount an event.

– Comparison/Contrast:  This strategy weighs and balances two or more ideas, usually for the purpose of selecting one over the other or to analyze common issues and appreciate differences.

– Classification:  When you classify, you break a subject down into the meaningful parts.  You may also explain how it fits into a larger category or grouping.  Your goal is to help readers better understand the whole.

– Cause/Effect:  When you develop a topic in this manner, you focus on making clear connections between the elements.  You establish logical relationships the show how one factor caused another factor to happen.

– Problem/Solution:  Similar to the Cause/Effect organization, you focus on the connections between various aspects.  However, in this model, you are connecting a problem with a solution.

– Evaluation:  A writer evaluates a subject by thinking in terms of its value, impact, significance, strengths, and weaknesses.

– Arguments:  These intend to persuade.  Writers use many tactics including reasons, statistics, and moral/ethical values to convince a reader to share their point of view.

– Analysis:  This model breaks down (analyzes) the topic so that the reader can better understand and evaluate it. 

            Writers can combine strategies in longer papers, depending on their thesis and complexity of topic.  You may find that you use various types of analytical writing in different portions of your paper.  For example, one section may focus on some comparison and contrast while another section offers a clear explanation of a certain cause and effect relationship.

18.  Develop your detailed outline

After you have narrowed your topic, done your research, taken your notes, and made preliminary/running/informal outlines, you are ready to make a formal outline that will guide the writing of your first rough draft.  Your note-taking and the outlines you have generated are to help you design your writing to support your thesis.  Your aim is to weave your own ideas and perspectives with your research into a clear, well-written essay.

At this point, evaluate your notes and your working outline.  Your detailed outline should reflect a thoughtful combination of these.  Your outline will reveal any gaps in your research and whether you have sufficient material.  Below are some questions to ask yourself at this point:

– “Are there any topics that have no supporting notes or are poorly support by notes?”

– “Do I have enough sources to develop my thesis?”

– “Have I included information on several points of view to show that you’ve fully and fairly examined all sides of the question?”

– “Are there any cards/ research notes that don’t fit in your outline?”

– “What specific details are essential for supporting your thesis?”

– “What quotes do you want to include?”  (Quotations should be used only to support your ideas, not to fill space or to reproduce facts.)

Types of Formal Outlines:  Once you have classified and arranged the elements of your outline and have selected the kind of organizational model you want to use, you need to pick the kind of outline you want to use.  Your outline is a tool to help you as you prepare to write your paper.  Three types of outlines are typically used.

Traditional Outline:  This outline uses Roman numerals, upper-case letters, Arabic numerals, and lower-case letters to organize the ideas and to represent the many levels of topics and subtopics.  These points on these outlines are stated in phrases or one-word comments.

Topic Sentence Outline:  This outline is similar to the traditional outline but simpler because it contains only major topics expressed in complete sentences and major subtopics expressed in phrases.

Topic Sentence and Quotation Outline:  This kind of outline uses topic sentences and quotations to support the topics.  It is a useful kind of outline because the process of creating it pinpoints useful quotations that you will need.

Developing your own outline:  Choose the type of detailed or formal outline you want to use for your own essay.  The more carefully that you develop your outline, the easier it will be to write your essay.

 

19.  Write first draft #1

Incorporating source material:  As you begin to write, you will need to decide which of your notes should remain quotations and which should be paraphrased or summarized.  Quotations should be used only to support your ideas, not to fill space or to reproduce facts.  Use the source’s exact words only when you cannot paraphrase effectively because the source uses language in a unique or technical way.  Remember to give credit where credit is due.

            When you’re using a quote from a source, an introduction to the source and a commentary on it helps make a smooth transition within a paragraph.  The introduction to the source can be a few words or a few sentences, but its purpose is to prepare the reader for the upcoming quotation.  The first time you mention a writer you should give his or her full name and indicate where the writer gets his or her authority.  Afterwards, you can use the author’s last name and omit other details.

Here is a list of words commonly used to introduce quotations:

according to

says

writes

adds

points out

admits

comments

agrees

asserts

claims

believes

confirms

contends

declares

insists

notes

observes

argues

reports

maintains

suggests

A direct quotation consists of words taken exactly from a source; a paraphrase is your own words.  A commentary on the source discusses the writer’s understanding of the source.  The citation indicates from where the quote or paraphrase was taken.

Re-examining your Thesis:  Your working thesis guided your note taking and helped direct your outline.  It also may have directed your development model and the way in which you want to present your material and support of your main idea.  As you begin your paper, re-examine your thesis; make sure it fits with your supporting evidence, your intent, and your choice for organization.

Writing the Introduction:  What makes a good introduction?  First, it should present a brief and fair summary of your main idea.  Your introduction should lead up to and explain your thesis statement.  It also must engage the reader’s interest; lively and appealing language should pull the reader in with an interesting opening device.  Some ideas or strategies for beginning your papers:

– Begin with a short story or anecdote related your topic.

– Begin with a question, the answer to which is your thesis.

– Begin with a shocking or dramatic incident related to the thesis.

– Start with a reference to a historical or biographical fact.

– Start with a paraphrase or direct quote.

Writing the Body:  If you are well-prepared, this part should not be overwhelming.  You have, to guide you through the process:

– your thesis

– your notes

– your outline

– your organizational plan

– your introduction

Your planning should be reflected in your outline, and if you follow your outline, you should be able to explore, argue, and explain your thesis because you set it up with topics, topic sentence, subtopics, and subtopic sentences.  Though you will include direct quotes and paraphrases, the writing should be your own with your own ideas, perceptions and interpretations of the information.  This is the first draft.  You will be reviewing its form, content and style as you prepare your final copy

Writing the Conclusion:  The conclusion comes at the end of the paper.  It must leave the reader with a sense of completion.  No new information should be introduced at this time.  Restate your thesis with different words and sum up the main points of your argument.

20.  Prepare works cited in MLA style

            Documenting means identifying and giving credit to the sources you used for information and ideas to explain and support your research.  In-text documentation shows the reader where your information came from, and this enables anyone who reads your paper to evaluate the credibility of your sources.  It also helps you avoid plagiarism; citations to sources give credit for material written by others that you used in your essay.  A Works Cited list is also a chance to demonstrate your hard work because you list all the sources you consulted.  Your list of sources allows others to learn more about your topic.

            MLA is the Modern Language Association of America, a large professional organization of teachers and scholars who study literature and modern languages.  Alternate styles of documentations include APA, CBE, and the number systems.  The MLA style is most widely used in literature and many humanities fields. 

            Documentation has two parts:  the Works Cited list and the in-text citations.  The Works Cited list appears at the end of the essay.  It lists, according to a specific pattern, the books used as references for the writing of the paper.  Books, magazines, journals, and online resources are combined into an alphabetical list.  Generally, the last name of the author is the first item in each entry and this is used for the alphabetical ordering of the entries. 

            The in-text documentation occurs in the body of the essay.  The writer puts a citation immediately after a source has been used.  That citation identifies the exact place in the source where the information appeared.  For specifics regarding the in-text citation and the Works Cited list, refer to a handbook or the MLA website (www.mla.org)  The Purdue On-line Writing Lab has some very helpful pages which includes a tutorial about writing MLA citations.  (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/)

            Use your list of sources that you’ve prepared as you did your research to complete your Works Cited list.  In-text documentation is how a writer indicates in the body of the essay which work is being quoted or paraphrased or summarized in a particular sentence or paragraph.  The basic model in MLA is that a parenthetical citation is placed directly after a source is used, pointing the reader to the Works Cited page.  This system replaces the use of footnotes or endnotes to identify sources.     If in the paragraph you as the writer mention the author of the material you want to cite, you only need to give the page number.

See the MLA Style Guide for more help.

           

21.  First draft of presentation plan

            Part of the assignment for this class includes a prepared presentation to the class of the main points of your research and paper.  This presentation is an oral presentation, like a speech, that includes some visual aspects.  It should not be a word for word reading of your paper.  Examine your outline, notes, and paper to find the main points that you’d like to present to the class.  You may want to present the main points without some of the lesser subtopics.  Alternately, you may want to focus on a portion that you found most interesting.  Your visual for the presentation can be a map, chart, timeline, or object.

22.  Peer edit

The peer editor helps the writer review a piece of writing. This person does not fix all of the mistakes. The peer editor suggests changes to help the writer fix his/her own mistakes. Sometimes it is easier to spot another person's mistakes than it is to spot your own.

The Editing Process

Peer editing and revising can be a difficult task for many students because there is the chance of offending the other student if there are many corrections to be made. The editing process can be made easier if proper etiquette and clear communication techniques are used during the process. Emphasize the importance of constructive criticism and goal of the class to improve everyone's writing skills and techniques.

Remain Positive

When critiquing another student’s paper positive remarks are an important aspect of editing and communicating with the other student. Discuss the positive areas of the paper and which parts were written well. Provide examples how and why you liked the paper even if there are quite a few corrections to be made. If the paper has many sentence structure errors but has accurate spelling or organization, you can discuss with them how well their spelling is done and how well the paper is organized. Let the other student know where the sentence structure problems are and give examples of how they can improve in those areas.

Criticism

The purpose of criticism is to help the other student learn from their mistakes and improve, not to tear them down and make them feel bad. It is not necessary to point out every single error. Instead, if there are many of the same mistakes throughout the paper mark the mistakes and then show the writer a couple of examples and show them how they can be fixed. For example, if the writer forgets to capitalize letters at the beginning of every sentence, it is not necessary to point out every single lowercase letter. Instead just show them a couple and explain how words at the beginning of new sentences need to be capitalized.

Point of View

When peer editing a paper it is vital to keep in mind the thoughts, opinions, and ideas in the paper are those of the writers. Therefore, you can not make changes in the paper because of the point of view, there has to be actual problems with the paper. Trying to edit the paper to form it into another point of view is not proper editing. An example of this would be if the writer is supporting republican views but you happen to be a democrat, you can not revise the paper to be of democratic views.

 

Peer Editing Rubric

	Needs Work	Good	Excellent
Content
Is the paper interesting and convincing?  Does it hold the reader’s interest.
Do any ideas seem vague?  What can the writer explain more thoroughly that would help the reader?
Can you determine the paper’s audience?
Writing is well-organized with introduction, body, and conclusion.
Does the introduction give the reader “clues” about the subject of the essay?  Does it give an accurate “road map?”
Is the conclusion or a mere summary?  Does it refer back to the introduction and help round out the essay?
Organization
As a reader, do you sense a structure in the paper?  Can you determine a logic behind it?
Do the transitions between sentences and paragraphs help connect the ideas?
Writing Style
Sentences are clear and concise.
Are some sections of the paper better written than others?
Is the style understandable and appropriate for the audience?
Does the writer use strong verbs and avoid using too many linking verbs and passive voice construction?
Does the writer use accurate descriptive words and show consistency of vocabulary throughout the paper?
Does the writer use words that display confidence in his/her subject, or tentative expressions such as “I think” or “It seems”?
Thesis & Support
Is the thesis statement easy to find and does it accurately voice the main idea of the paper?
Is the thesis supported in the body of the paper?
Is the thesis statement easy to find and does it accurately voice the main idea of the paper?
Is the thesis supported in the body of the paper?
Is any evidence or support missing?
Is there any evidence that contradicts the thesis or should be cut from the paper?
Research & Documentation
Is the research thoroughly documented?  Are citations for direct quotes, paraphrases and summaries accurate and understandable?
Is the research integrated into the paper?  Does the writer have a good balance of his/her own ideas and materials from other resources?
Mechanics & Presentation
Grammar and spelling are correct.
Sentences and paragraphs are punctuated properly.
Typing and presentation are neat.
Piece of writing is the required length.
Best parts of this piece of writing
Areas that need more work

23.  Revise Rough Draft #1

            Do not expect the first draft or your paper to be the finished project.  The successful research paper is usually the circulation of a series of drafts.  Different writers have different strategies and styles.  Some will write slowly and come close to a final draft the first time through.  Others prefer to work in stages and expect to undertake several drafts.  In any case, review and rewriting are always necessary.  In this first revision of your paper, focus on the organization and presentation of ideas.

            One helpful strategy for reviewing your organization is to write a “reverse outline.”  When composing this kind of outline, the writer reads through his paper and writes an outline from the paragraphs and structure already written in the paper.  This kind of outline helps the writer to determine if his paper is well-organized.

            In revising the rough draft, you may add, eliminate, and rearrange material.  If you wonder if a section is unclear, read it aloud to yourself or to someone else.  You may have to rewrite a sentence or two; sometimes whole paragraphs need rewriting.  To improve the fluency and coherence of the paper, you may need to add transitions between sentences or paragraphs.  If the presentation of ideas seems illogical or confusing, you may find that you can clarify it by rearranging phrases, clauses, sentences, or paragraphs.

            While this first revision is primarily for organization and clarity or ideas, in later drafts you should concern yourself with mechanics.  For example, be aware of word choices and that your diction is exact and accurate.  For example, strive for more precise and economical wording.  Also, correct all technical errors, using a guide to check punctuation, grammar, spelling, and usage. 

Language and Style

            While writing the first draft, writers are often more concerned about the research and ideas.  Revising this first draft means taking a careful look at how you’ve said what is important. 

            Effective writing depends as much on clarity and readability as on content.  The organization and development of your ideas, the unity and coherence of your presentation, and your command of sentence structure, grammar, and diction are all important, as are the mechanics of writing – capitalization, spelling, punctuation and so on. 

            Careful writing of research papers requires that students are careful to avoid disrespectful or inappropriate generalizations that would be offensive to any specific groups of people.  The language you use, your “voice,” will be determined by your topic, your purpose and your audience.  Following are some strategies to remember when revising your paper:

1.  To make your writing livelier, avoid using passive voice wherein something is done to the subject as opposed to the subject performing the action.

2.  So that the tone of your writing will be more objective, do not use the personal pronoun “I” or preface your remarks with “in my opinion” or “I think.”

3.  Do not use slang, jargon, or inflated overly inflated formal language.  You don’t want your essay to sound too informal or stiff and hard to understand.  Remember that research writing must impress by its ideas and how well they are presented, not by its use of fancy words.

4.  Sometimes specific terminology or subject-specific references must be used.  Define or explain these references, where necessary.  Knowing your audience will help you determine how much you need to explain.  Explain your term the first time you use it, so that you can use it regularly throughout your paper.

5.  Write with confidence.  Don’t weaken your paper with hesitant words like might, maybe, in my opinion, or I think.  In general, you should come to a conclusion about your topic and state it clearly.

6.  Be careful to avoid using sexist or other discriminatory language.  Your language must never offend or sound derogatory.

Research Paper Checklist

Areas to look at:

I.  Structure and content

            A.  Introduction (Is it effective?)

            B.  Hypothesis (Does it answer the research?  Is it strong and clear?)

            C.  Organization  (Is it logical?  Appropriate?)

            D.  Development  (Does the text develop the thesis?)

            E.  Integration of quotations (Are they done smoothly and clearly?)

            F.  Conclusion  (Is it effective?)

II.  Documentation

            A.  Quality of research (Is it appropriate?)

            B.  Quantity of research (Is there enough?)

            C.  Quotation form (Is it correct?)

            D.  In-text documentation (Is the form correct?)

            E.  Works Cited list (Is the form correct?)

III.  Style  (Has the writer looked for audience and purpose, voice and tone?)

IV.  Format  (Has the writer followed the quidelines for format?)

V.  Guidelines for revision.

Checklist for Proofreading

1.  Take a blank piece of paper and move it slowly down the paper, from beginning to end.

2.  Take a blank piece of paper and move it slowly up the paper, from the end to the beginning.

3.  Read your paper aloud.

4.  Read through your paper again, focusing on those areas that you know you have trouble with.

5.  Read your paper to a friend or family member.

6. Do all the above, put your paper aside, and proofread it again a day later.

           

24.  Finalize presentation plans

            Giving a presentation before classmates can be intimidating.  It helps to have a carefully though out plan.  Consider the highlights of your topic’s paper.  These are the details you will want to share with your class.  Keep in mind the format requirements:

1.  You must have something visual to share with the class.  This can be a poster, picture, or an object.

2.  Your presentation must be at least 10 minutes long, but not longer than 20 minutes.

Some pointers to make your presentation go smoothly:

1.  Prepare yourself in advance. 

2.  Organize your presentation in simple sections.

3.  Practice beforehand.

4.  Talk, don’t read.

5.  Don’t speak too quickly. 

6.  Don’t bury the class in too many quotations or too many statistics.

7.  Make eye contact with all of the class, looking from the font to the back.

8.  Have a clear conclusion.

25.  Prepare visuals for presentation

            Any visual aids should emphasize your ideas without distracting the audience. 

Visual aids add impact and interest to a presentation. They enable you to appeal to more than one sense at the same time, thereby increasing the audience's understanding and retention level. With pictures, the concepts or ideas you present are no longer simply words - but words plus images. The chart below cites the effectiveness of visual aids on audience retention.

People tend to eye-minded, and the impacts visual aids bring to a presentation are, indeed, significant. The studies, below, reveal interesting statistics that support these findings:

• In many studies, experimental psychologists and educators have found that retention of information three days after a meeting or other event is six times greater when information is presented by visual and oral means than when the information is presented by the spoken word alone.
• Studies by educational researchers suggest that approximately 83% of human learning occurs visually, and the remaining 17% through the other senses - 11% through hearing, 3.5% through smell, 1% through taste, and 1.5% through touch.
• The studies suggest that three days after an event, people retain 10% of what they heard from an oral presentation, 35% from a visual presentation, and 65% from a visual and oral presentation.

The use of visual aids, then, is essential to all presentations. Without them, the impact of your presentation may leave the audience shortly after the audience leaves you. By preparing a presentation with visual aids that reinforce your main ideas, you will reach your audience far more effectively, and, perhaps, continue to "touch" them long after the presentation ends.  (from http://www.osha.gov/doc/outreachtraining/htmlfiles/traintec.html )

26.  Rough Draft #2

            The purpose of a second rough draft is to work out all of the organizational difficulties and mechanical errors.  This is the product of the revisions and editing of your first rough draft.  For most writers, the bulk of the changes will occur between the first and second rough drafts. Usually, only minor changes are made between the second draft and the final draft.

Editing Checklist

If you are not sure about an error, take the time to look it up in a writer’s handbook.

1.  Check for run-on sentences and fragment.  Are all your sentences “complete sentences?”  Does every sentence have a subject, verb, and complete thought?

2.  Check every verb.  Do subjects and verbs agree and is the proper verb tense used?  Have you eliminated all “There is/are” etc. sentences?

3.  Use the dictionary or spell-checker to check for spelling errors.  Remember, the spell checker sill not catch errors wherein you use the wrong word.

4.  Get out your personal list of errors.  Check your writing for any of these errors.

5.  Check for punctuation.  (If unsure, use a handbook to check for proper punctuation usage.)

6.  Be aware of all pronouns.  Do they match their antecedents?

7.  Look for any missing words by reading it carefully aloud.

8.  Check modifiers.

27.  Finalize works cited page

            Review the guidelines and instructions from WEEK 10, Step 20.  For further help with your in-text citations, check the handbook you received for this class and any on-line sources that were mentioned.  Your works cited page should have the following format:

– Title your page(s):  Works Cited

– Sources are listed alphabetically by the author’s last name

– In the case of a source without a listed author, the title of the article is considered in determining its place in the listing instead of the author’s last name.

– Double-check the rules for punctuation and capitalization

– 1 inch margins

– Single-spaced

– Header with your last name and page number

– Page number continues from the text of the paper

– First line of the citation is at the edge of the margin. 

– Second line of the citation is indented

           

           

28.  Proofread your paper.

            This is your final opportunity to work through your paper.  Hopefully by this time, you’ve made necessary corrections in your content, organization, and style.  Many times, however, as we read our work multiple times, various sections will stick out.  These portions may not be written as clearly as others; they may lack in organization or information.  Even though rewriting is part of the revision process, do not let a poorly written section stand as it is.  Fix it.  On the other hand, resist the temptation to rewrite large portions, completely rework your organization, or add significant pieces of information.

            Proofreading has been made easier with “Spell Check” on our computers.  However, even this helpful tool will not tell you if you have the wrong word altogether.  You may have meant to type “must” but typed “most” instead.  Spell Check will not correct that mistake.  Sometimes the auto-correct function will change a word.  In other words, using the tools with your word processing software is a great help and time-saver but it does not guarantee a flawless paper.

           

Check for the following as you proofread:

– Spelling

– Punctuation

– Capitalization

– Complete sentences (no fragments or run-ons)

– Subject-verb agreement

– Consistency in verb tenses

– Pronoun-antecedent agreement

– Proper use of quotation marks

29.  Presentation

            During WEEK 9 (Steps 24 & 25) you finalized the preparations for your presentation and arranged for your visual piece.  You’ve read and re-read your paper enough times that you have mastered the content of your subject.  Be proud of all the hard work you’ve done as you confidently give your presentation.

(from Step 24)

Some pointers to make your presentation go smoothly:

1.  Prepare yourself in advance. 

2.  Organize your presentation in simple sections.

3.  Practice beforehand.

4.  Talk, don’t read.

5.  Don’t speak too quickly. 

6.  Don’t bury the class in too many quotations or too many statistics.

7.  Make eye contact with all of the class, looking from the font to the back.

8.  Have a clear conclusion.

30.  Final Draft

            With the help of current technology, preparing the final copy of a paper does not mean having to type it all over, possibly for the third or fourth time.  All of the editing functions in our word processing software is an incredible time-saver and also allows us to present polished versions of our hard work.  Below are the guidelines for the format for your papers

In MLA, title pages are optional, but I would like you to prepare one.

– Insert the title (centered on the page) 2 inches down from the top

– Do not underline or italicize the title, unless you are including the title of a book, etc.

– Put the word “by” (not capitalized) an inch down from the title

– In the next line, type your full name.

– Another inch down from that, type the name of this class (Writing 3:  Research & Writing); on the next line type the instructor’s name (Mrs. Prichard); on the final line type the date the paper was handed in.

Paper formatting:

– 1 inch margins

– Double-spaced

– Header in the upper margin on the right side:  Your last name, page number

– First page:

o   Header information

o   Left side:  Your name, Instructor’s name, class name, date (each on a separate line and double spaced)

o   Title