Friday, August 26, 2016

Writing 3 Grammar Plan

Grammar Plan for Writing 3

WEEK 1
The Sentence & The 8 Parts of Speech
WEEK 2
Types of Sentences
WEEK 3
Phrases, Part 1
WEEK 4
Phrases, Part 2
WEEK 5
Clauses, Part 1
WEEK 6
Clauses, Part 2
WEEK 7
Coordination & Subordination
WEEK 8
Parallel Structure
WEEK 9
Agreement:  Subject/Verb
WEEK 10
Agreement:  Pronoun/Noun
WEEK 11
Punctuation & Capitalization
WEEK 12
Sentence Combining, Part 1
WEEK 13
Sentence Combining, Part 2









WEEK 1

THE SENTENCE
A sentence is
a unit of words
simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex
made of a subject and a verb, and a complete thought
Subject
The simple subject is the singular noun or plural nouns that do the action of the verb.
The complete subject is the simple subject with any modifiers.
Verb
The simple verb may consist of one word or a group of words.  These are the action words of the sentence.
The complete subject is also called the predicate.  It contains modifiers, direct objects, and indirect objects.
Fragment
A fragment often looks like a sentence with a capital letter and an end punctuation.  However, it is missing a subject, a verb, or a complete thought.
The Run-on
A Run-on sentence is two or more sentences improperly joined by wrong puncutaion, no punctuation, or a conjunction that needs help from some kind of punctuation. 
Correcting a Run-on sentence
1.      Make two sentences.
2.      Join the two clauses by using a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
3.      Join the two clauses with a semicolon.
4.      Join the two clauses with a semicolon and a connector with a comma (but not a coordinating conjunction.
5.      Subordinate one of the clauses.



8 PARTS OF SPEECH
Verb
Verbs are commonly action words.  Verbs are in the following categories:
            Action, State of being, Linking, Groups of words
Verbs have voice
            Active:  the action of the verb is performed by the subject of the sentence.
            Passive:  the action of the verb is performed upon the subject of the sentence.
Agreement in number
            Singular subjects and singular verbs; plural subjects and plural verbs
All sentences have verbs
            Imperative sentences may appear to be missing the subject, but it is an understood “you.”
All verbs have four principal parts:
            1) present stem – e.g. look
            2) past tense – e.g. looked
            3) past participle – e.g. looked
            4) present participle – e.g. looking
Noun
Nouns are words, phrases or clauses that name a person, place, thing, idea, or quality.
Categories for nouns:  common, proper, compound, collective, as adverbs, concrete, abstract, countable, non-countable, verbal nouns (gerunds),
A noun can be used in a sentence as a: subject, direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition, predicate noun

Pronoun
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.  An antecedent is a word or group of words to which a pronoun refers.  If the antecedent is singular, the pronoun must be singular.  If the antecedent is plural, then the pronoun must be plural.
The various types of pronouns:  Personal (Subjective case, Objective case, Possessive case), Reflexive or intensive, Demonstrative, Relative, Interrogative, Extended, Indefinite

Adjective
An adjective is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies (changes, limits, describes, transforms, qualifies) a noun or pronoun.
Adjectives anwer the following questions:  Which one? What kind of? and How many?
Adjectives may be placed before the noun, after the noun, or after a state of being or linking verb.

Adverb
An adverb is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies (changes, limits, describes, transforms, qualifies) a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Adverbs answer the following questions:  How? When? Where? To what extent? How much? How often?


Preposition
A preposition is a word that links a noun or pronoun with some other word (usually a noun or a verb).
A preposition always comes before the noun (object of the preposition)
Prepositional phrases can be adjectival or adverbial.


Conjunction
A conjunction is a word or words used to join other words, phrases, or clauses.
Coordinating conjunctions:  for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (“FANBOYS”)
Correlative conjunctions:  either … or; neither … nor; not only … but also; both … and; etc.
Adverbial conjunctions:  although, if, because, since (these join subordinate clauses)


Interjection
An interjection is a word or group of words expressing emotion or feeling.

  
  
WEEK 2

    A simple sentence contains one subject and one predicate. It expresses one main idea. Parts of the sentence, however, may be compound.

            The line is busy now.

    A compound sentence is made up of two simple sentences that express related ideas. These sentences are connected by a semicolon or by a comma and a coordinating conjunction. A semicolon that connects two simple sentences may be followed by a conjunctive adverb.

            The line is busy now, but I will try again later.

    A complex sentence contains one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. The subordinate clauses may be used as adverbs, adjectives, or nouns. A complex sentence expresses one main idea and one or more dependent ideas.

            Although the line is busy now, I will try again later.

    A compound-complex sentence contains two main clauses and one or more subordinate clauses. The subordinate clauses may be adverb, adjective, or noun clauses. A compound-complex sentence expresses two main ideas, as well as one dependent idea.

            The line is busy, but I will try again when I finish this.

    Identifying the Kinds of Sentences. For each sentence, write Simple, Compound, Complex, or Compound-Complex to show what kind it is.

            1. These jogging shoes are canvas and suede. __________________________________
            2. Can you fix the bell, or should I call the electrician? ___________________________
            3. We picked the apples ourselves and baked a pie. ______________________________
            4. The reporter asked if she could arrange an interview. ___________________________
            5. People spend one third of their lives asleep. __________________________________
            6. The mysterious burglary, which baffled the police for years, has finally been solved,      and justice will now be served. ______________________________________________
            7. The union met with its members, and they accepted the contract.__________________
            8. The recue worker explained what the situation was. ____________________________
            9. After the audience gave him an ovation. Lionel Ritchie sang two encores and then he    left the stage. ____________________________________________________________
            10. As she presented the awards, the principal congratulated us. ____________________
   

A compound-complex sentence consists of two or more main clauses and one or more subordinate clauses. It may help you to think of a compound-complex sentence as a compound sentence plus a subordinate clause. Actually, the compound-complex sentences join two sentences, at least one of which has a subordinate clause. The main clauses are joined by either a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon.

Main Clause                           Subordinate Clause                           Main Clause
Gina Knew                              that she would have to wait,                but she didn’t mind

Main Clause                           Subordinate Clause                           Main Clause
Carl was surprised                   when he was chosen;                          he had never expected to win

    Analyzing Compound-Complex Sentences. Underline each main clause once and each subordinate clause twice.

            1. Pam knew where the park was, and she gave us directions.
            2. After our team won, we decided to celebrate, so we led a parade through town.
            3. When the committee met, witnesses testified about poor living conditions, and experts                          suggested improvements.
            4. Sharon has been studying piano since she was six years old, and she enjoys it.
            5. Greg said that we should start without him, but we waited anyway.
            6. The radio that you like is on sale, but it is still expensive.
            7. The bookstore ordered the items that Tim requested, and he is waiting for them.
            8. The mayor outlined his plane, which was very complicated, and then reporters asked                             questions about it.
            9. The sale items were so popular that they were gone in an hour, and the manager agreed                         to order more.
            10. Scientists have identified the agents that cause the disease, but they haven’t found a                           cure for it.
            11. The actor was nervous before he auditioned; he felt that he did well, though.
            13. Vanessa’s sister is a computer programmer; she translates information into symbols                              that the computer reads. 
            14. Since the rain stopped, the game can be resumed; our team is ahead.
            15. High blood pressure is a serious condition that affects many people, and it should be                           treated by a qualified physician.




WEEK 3 – PHRASES, part 1

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
Prepositional Phrases:  These phrases are either adjectives or adverbs depending upon how they are used.  A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun.
            Examples:
·  At the high school, Mr. Thompson taught history.  (adverbial modifying taught)
·  The gym at the high school is sold out for the big game.  (adjectival modifying gym)
·  In 1892, James Corbett became the heavy weight champion of boxing.  (first phrase is and adverb; second phrase is an adjective)
            Same phrase used two different ways:
·  Ann found in her drink a fly.  (adverb phrase modifying found)
·  The fly in her drink bothered Ann.  (adj. phrase modifying bee)
·  From the shore, Randy caught fifteen catfish.  (adverb modifying caught)
·  Greg visited his friend from the shore of Lake Superior.  (adj. modifying friend)




PARTICIPIAL PHRASES
Participial Phrases:  These phrases function as adjectives and contain a present or past participle.  Participles all tend to end in “’ing” (present participle), “-ed,” “-d,” “-en,” “-n,” or “-t” with a few exceptions like “swum” and “hung.”  Participial phrases are made up of a participle along with an object or modifier or both.  These adjective phrases are usually placed as near as possible to the words they modify.  Participles are the third and fourth principle parts of verbs.
            Examples:
·  Fortified against an attack, Macbeth’s army almost deserted their leader.
·  Singing “Aida” in the shower, Gary annoyed his roommates. 
·  Marching in the parade, Patrick showed his Irish pride.
·  Dedicated to the health of the poor, Mother Theresa helped others.
·  Thrashing the shore with great force, the storm pounded the rocky coast of Maine.





GERUND PHRASES
Gerund Phrases:  Like any noun, a gerund phrase can function as a subject, direct object, indirecto object, object of the preposition, or predicate nominative.  The gerund phrase is made up of the present participle (“-ing”) and can contain an object and/or a modifier (and sometimes many modifiers).  The gerund is a verbal noun.
            Examples:
            Gerund phrase as a subject:
·  Making the varsity team is a challenging endeavor.
·  Selling boats demands product knowledge.
Gerund phrase as a direct object:
·  My father once considered swimming the English Channel.
·  The rookie catchers practiced protecting the plate.
Gerund phrase as an indirect object:
·  If students give learning grammar a fair chance, their writing will improve.
·  My brother once gave swinging a golf club his undivided attention.
Gerund phrase as an Object of the Preposition:
·  Local authorities tried to control mosquitoes by spraying insecticide.
·  Carrie got first prize by memorizing the most poetry.
Gerund phrase as a Predicate Nominative:
·  Kathy’s hobby was collecting unusual bottles.
·  Robyn’s greatest accomplishment is singing in the opera.
·  Hank’s strength in hockey was slashing from the left.


INFINITIVE PHRASES
Infinitive Phrases:  Infinitive phrases can be used as three parts of speech:  noun, adjective, or adverb.  An infinitive phrase will begin with an infinitive (to + simple for of the verb).  It may include direct objects and/or modifiers
            Examples:
·  To finish her shift without spilling was Michelle’s only goal.  (functions as a noun)
·  Connor hopes to win the approval of his coach by showing up early for practice. (functions as a noun)
·  The best way to survive Mrs. Prichard’s class is counting backwards from 100 until class is over. (functions as an adjective)
·  Calvin, an aspiring doctor, is taking British Literature to give himself a well-rounded education. (functions as an adverb – “why”)




When an infinitive phrase introduces a sentence and is followed by the main clause, separate the sections with a comma.


  
WEEK 4 – PHRASES, part 2

APPOSITIVES AND APPOSITIVE PHRASES
Appositive:  An appositive is always a noun.  Usually it follows immediately after a noun, is sometimes set off by commas, and renames or emphasizes the noun it follows.  Appositives are the words or phrases that explain or add information to the noun it follows.  Appositives never contain verbs.
            Examples: 
·  Barron’s, a publisher of books, boasts of the finest employees.
·  The Northfield Historical Society, a local organization, gives tours at the museum.


One word “name” appositives usually do not need commas, but there is a caution here.  If there are more of the group, then no commas are needed.  In the example below, if there are more brothers or sisters, you would not use commas to set apart the appositive.  No commas means restrictive; restrictive means that if you take that element out of the sentence, the sentence changes its meaning.  The element is essential and therefore no commas.  Putting commas around an appositive tells the readers that this part of the sentence is not absolutely necessary or needed, but it does add to the information of the sentence.
Example:
·  My brother Mark lives in France but works in Switzerland.


For the sake of variety, the appositive might appear before the noun.
            Examples:
·  The owner of the gallery, Kevin Hanson, won a grant to fund a new art show.
·  The most outstanding writing teacher, Mrs. Prichard, teaches three classes at CHAT.



RESTRICTIVE/ NONRESTRICTIVE
When you have nonrestrictive (nonessential) elements in a sentence, set them off with commas.  You must decide if the information is essential or not.  If the information is essential to the meaning of the sentence, you have a restrictive phrase or clause, and you do not use commas.
            Examples:
·  The little boy who was wearing the blue sweater is lost. (this phrase contains important details)
·  The little boy, who didn’t seem to like his lunch, is lost.  (this phrase doesn’t add essential information to the main idea of the sentence)

The use of “that” implies a restrictive (essential) phrase or clause, so no commas are needed.
            Examples:
·  People who live near Gus are lucky because he shares from his garden. (restrictive, no commas)
·  Cindy, who is my favorite cousin, is a good writer.  (nonrestrictive, use commas)
·  Grandma, wearing her bonnet and Grandpa’s coveralls, should not spend too much time weeding the garden.  (nonrestrictive, use commas)
·  People who like the beach are hard to find.  (restrictive, no commas)
·  Restrooms that are dirty ought to be illegal.  (restrictive, no commas)
·  The garden, which was beautiful, contained many varieties of tomatoes.  (nonrestrictive, use commas)



WEEK 5 – Clauses, part 1

Clauses:  Careful writers introduce clauses into their writing for emphasis, variety, and added information.  Clauses are either independent, meaning they can stand by themselves and make sense (in other words, sentences), or dependent, meaning they cannot stand by themselves, and to make sense, they need to attach themselves to other words, phrases, or independent clauses.

Independent clause, main clause, or sentence are synonymous and the terms may be used interchangeable.  Also, dependent and subordinate are synonymous and used interchangeably.  Subordinate also implies that the thought expressed by this type of clause is an important fact but less important than the sentence itself.  If a subordinate clause cannot be removed (the meaning of the sentence is altered), then this clause is restrictive or essential.  If the clause can be omitted without changing the meaning of the sentence, then the clause is non-restrictive or non-essential.

Sentences and Clauses
By combining main clauses and dependent clauses, a writer can stress thoughts when he uses main clauses and relegates other thoughts less important when he uses dependent clauses.
            Examples:
(Although the Yankees played several games with replacements), the team hung together and eventually won the pennant.  (The writer stresses the cohesiveness and victory of the team in the main clause as the main idea.)
The Carpenters, (who have lived in several parts of the world), love Minneapolis the best.  (The clause is dependent on the primary idea.)





DEPENDENT CLAUSES
A dependent clause is a group of words with a subject and verb:  noun clauses, adjective clauses, and adverb clauses function in the same manner as words and phrases, except clauses tend to be longer units.  These groups of words may look like sentences because they contain a verb and a subject; however, they also may contain an introductory word which shows some relationship to another part of the sentence.  Therefore these clauses cannot stand by themselves because they must attach themselves to make sense.


NOUN CLAUSE
A noun clause is a group of words that function as a subject, direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition, or predicate nominative.
            Examples:
·  SubjectWhoever is responsible for the graffiti should turn himself in to the police.
·  Direct Object:  Gene clicks away with the remote and chooses whatever suits his fancy.
·  Indirect Object:  Mr. Collins assigned whoever had an “A” an extra credit project.
·  Object of the preposition:  Mr. Jameson will present the award to whoever baked the best chocolate cake.
·  Predicate Nominative:  The award was whatever struck the fancy of the judges.



  
WEEK 6 – Clauses, part 2

Clauses:  Careful writers introduce clauses into their writing for emphasis, variety, and added information.  Clauses are either independent, meaning they can stand by themselves and make sense (in other words, sentences), or dependent, meaning they cannot stand by themselves, and to make sense, they need to attach themselves to other words, phrases, or independent clauses.

Independent clause, main clause, or sentence are synonymous and the terms may be used interchangeable.  Also, dependent and subordinate are synonymous and used interchangeably.  Subordinate also implies that the thought expressed by this type of clause is an important fact but less important than the sentence itself.  If a subordinate clause cannot be removed (the meaning of the sentence is altered), then this clause is restrictive or essential.  If the clause can be omitted without changing the meaning of the sentence, then the clause is non-restrictive or non-essential.


ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
An adjective clause is a group of words with a subject and verb and introductory relative pronoun (who, whom, which, that); this group of words modifies a single noun or pronoun.
Examples:
·  Butch, who tells the best stories, has traveled alone all through the West.
·  After reading from his novel, the author took questions that the audience enthusiastically asked.
·  The program that captures the imagination of the audience usually receives the greatest applause.
·  The Tavern, which is owned by an Englishman, does a great business in Northfield.



ADVERB CLAUSES
An adverb clause is a group of words with a subject and verb and an introductory adverb that designates when, where, how, and to what extent and expresses reason.  Adverb clauses usually modify verbs but, like single adverbs, also modify adjectives. 

Usually, when an adverb clause comes at the beginning of a sentence, it is set off by a comma.
Examples:
·  When Alyssa called, she told us that she has a new job.
·  When the sentence was written, the writer ignored standard rules of grammar.

When the adverb clause is in the middle of the sentence, it usually is set off by a comma, but at the end of the sentence it is set off by a comma only if the thought in the clause is abruptly negative to the words before.
            Examples:
·  Joan travels to Nantucket every year, although she never goes fishing. (the clause is contrary to the preceding thought)
·  Joan also visits New Bedford before she lands on Nantucket.  (no comma needed)
·  My son points beautiful portraits, even though he never took lessons.  (contradicting thought)



  

WEEK 7 – Coordination & Subordination

Coordination and subordination:  When writing, a writer must decide what to emphasize and what not to emphasize so that the reader will know exactly what the writer intends.  Words, phrases, clauses, and sentences (main clauses) may be coordinated and subordinated.


Coordinating conjunctions:  The following coordinating conjunctions join main clauses:  and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet.


Correlative conjunctions:  The following join two main clauses only:  both … and, not only … but also, whether … or, either … or, and neither … nor (usually with no comma).


With semicolons but not with commas, the following connectives can be used to introduce the next clause:  consequently, however, in fact, moreover, subsequently, in addition, also, indeed, then, nevertheless, therefore, in contrast.
            Example:
Malcolm rode the bus to school; however, he prefers to walk.
Shannon bought a new car; moreover, she purchased a motorcycle, too.


            Any of the subordinating conjunctions, placed at the beginning of a main clause, subordinates that clause and makes it now “less important,” although still adding interesting facts to the sentence.  Some of these subordinating conjunctions function as prepositions.  “Before,” for example, can be either a preposition or an introductory adverb, depending upon how “before” is used.  Following are the subordinating conjunctions:


after
although
as
as far as
as long as
as soon as
as if
because
before
even if
even though
if
inasmuch as
insofar as
provided that
since
so that
that
though
until
unless
when
whenever
where
wherever
whereas
while
why




The challenge:  When to subordinate a clause?  When should a clause be written as a main clause and when should it be a dependent clause?




Examples:
Compound sentences:  Two simple sentences together are related, meaningful, and grammatically equal and are joined by a coordinating conjunction and a comma.
            Ex:  Venice floods during a full moon, and tourists use raised walkways.



Complex sentences:  A complex sentence can be formed by combining two main clauses into a more complex sentence.  In a compound sentence example, the writer implies that both statements are of equal value.  However, in a complex sentence example, the author implies that the flooding becomes an interesting detail subordinate to people using the raised walkways, stressed because of the main clause.
            Ex:  When Venice floods, tourists use raised walkways.


Simple sentence:  The same information can be combined into a simple sentence using prepositional phrases.
            Ex:  Tourists use raised walkways in Venice during floods of the full moon.


When writers coordinate (combine ideas of equal value) or subordinate (present one idea as more important than another), they must use the proper forms of coordination or subordination.


RELATIONSHIPS IN COMPOUND SENTENCES
‘and’ – shows addition, something added
‘but’ – indicates an opposite thought is about to happen
‘or’ – signals an alternative to the first thought
‘nor’ – indicates a negative alternative thought is about to follow
‘for’ – shows a reason for the first thought or clause
‘yet’ – indicates another opposite thought about to follow


RELATIONSHIPS IN COMPLEX SENTENCES
time – after, as long as, as soon as, before, since, until, when, whenever, whil
condition – if, when, provided that, unless
contrast – although, even though, though, while, whereas
degree – as far as, inasmuch as, insofar as
place – where, wherever
cause – because, since, as

When is a main clause appropriate and when is a subordinate clause appropriate?  Obviously, the answer lies with the writer, who should know the differences between these handy elements.




WEEK 8 – Parallel Structure

            One of the ways writers can improve their writing is to use parallel structure when the text demands the use of a coordinating conjunction to join words, phrases, or clauses; also, when the text demands items in a series (three or more); and finally when the text demands the use of correlative conjunctions.  In each of these three cases, the writer is obligated to “express himself in the same grammatical form,” pairing like items together.  Parallel structure is also effective with comparisons.

Using parallel structure consists of writing using like grammatical terms.  ‘Like grammatical terms” means nouns with nouns, gerund phrases with gerund phrases, etc.
            Examples:
Wrong:  Prevent dust buildup by cleaning your computer monthly and dust your house weekly.
Corrected:  Prevent dust buildup by cleaning your computer monthly and by dusting your house weekly.
ORClean your computer monthly and dust your house weekly in order to prevent dust buildup.

Wrong:  I love to read and writing.
Corrected:  I love to read and to write.
OR:  I love reading and writing.



USING COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS IN PARALLEL STRUCTURE
“Coordinating” means equivalent.  When a coordinating conjunction is used, those elements must be the same grammatical form.  Items (words, phrases, clauses, and sentences) in a series (three or more) demand the use of parallel structure.

Words in a Series
Examples:
Wrong:  Most students consider the SAT impossible, useless, and a waste of time. (adj., adj., & noun)
Corrected:  Most students consider the SAT impossible, useless, and wasteful.  (adj., adj., & adj.)

Wrong:  Tony considers himself a good father, a loving husband, and in a good occupation.  (noun, noun, prep. phrase)
Corrected  Tony considers himself a good father, a loving husband, and a hard worker. (noun, noun, noun)

Phrases in a Series
Prepositional, gerund, participial, and infinitive phrases by simple definition are groups of words that do not contain a verb, although the last three will have words resembling verbs (designated as verbals).  When phrases are used, each must be the same, grammatically as the others.

Prepositional Phrase
Example:
WrongOver the river, through the woods, and climbing the mountain, we trekked to grandmother’s house.  (prep. phrase, prep. phrase, verb)
CorrectedOver the river, through the woods, and up the mountain, we trekked to grandmother’s house.  (prep. phrase, prep. phrase, prep. phrase)

Gerund (Noun) Phrase
Example:
WrongRushing the quarterback, protecting their own players, and when they recovered a fumble won the game for the Colts.  (gerund, gerund, participial phrase)
CorrectedRushing the quarterback, protecting their own players, and when they recovered a fumble won the game for the Colts.  (gerund, gerund, participial phrase)

Participial Phrase
Example:
Wrong:  Captain Ahab, pacing the deck, while he was exhorting his crew, and seeking only one thing, turned the Pequod into a nightmare for the mates and the crew.  (part. phrase, adverb clause, part. phrase)
Corrected:  Captain Ahab, pacing the deck, exhorting his crew, and seeking only one thing, turned the Pequod into a nightmare for the mates and the crew.  (part. phrase, part. phrase,, part. phrase)



Infinitive Phrases
Infinitive phrases are the most complicated only because they can be used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. 
Examples:
NounsTo pet a cat, to sit in the woods, and to handle weeds makes one itchy.
Adjectives:  Kathy developed a plan to ride her bike, to clip coupons, and to budget for vacations.
Adverbs:  For punishment, I was made to sit in the corner, to read a grammar book, and to write essays.


Clauses in a Series
Examples:
Adjective Clauses:  The crew of the ship was composed of men (who drank great quantities of beer on land,) (who lived wildly while not at sea,) but (who knew their business and toiled bravely in the terrible conditions of the sea.)
Noun Clauses:  (The Joe Dimaggio connected himself to the Mafia,) (that he carried the Yankees to a record number of World Series wins,) and (that he attracted beautiful women define him as a complicated character.)
Adverb Clauses:  Mark Twain reigns as an unforgettable literary figure because he traveled the Mississippi River,) (because he wrote for newspapers,) and (because he lectured about his many books.)


Sentences in a Series
Sentences in a series are actually compound sentences.  The writer can string as many  sentences together as he wants, as many as he needs to convey ideas.  When combining a series (three or more) it must remain parallel.





USING CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS IN PARALLEL STRUCTURE
The correlative conjunctions include either … or, neither … not, etc.  “Correlative” means that these pairs of words always go together and that they join two items only.  To use these correlative conjunctions correctly, the writer must place the same grammatical forms after each words in the pair.
Example:
Since the field trip has been postponed, the students will either go to the gym or go to their homerooms.
Words with Correlative Conjunctions
            Examples:
The man remained not only calm but also cool during the traffic accident. (two adjectives)
Neither snow nor sleet can keep the postman from his appointed rounds. (two nouns)
My rich uncle will leave his fortune to either him or me. (two pronouns)

Phrases with Correlative Conjunctions
Examples:
Instant replay is popular not only with the fans but also with the coaches.  (two prep. phrases)
We prevented erosion by both digging a trench and rerouting the water.  (two gerund phrases)
Whether sailing at Lake Pepin or skiing at Welch Village, my family always enjoys themselves.  (two participial phrases)
Because the plane was low on fuel, the pilot did not know whether to land in the farmer’s field or to try making the airport.  (two infinitive phrases)

Clauses with Correlative Conjunctions
Examples:
Newport, Rhode Island, shines in the summer not only because yachtsmen from all over the world bring their vessels to the harbor but also because the tourist trade is in full swing.  (two adverb clauses)
Because the scores of the top scholars were so close, the academic prize went to either whoever had the highest English score or whoever scored the best in math.  (two noun clauses)


Using words, phrases, clauses and sentences in parallel structure shows maturity in writing and a definite grasp of grammar.  Using parallel structures also clears up incorrect or awkward comparisons.



WEEK 9 – Agreement:  Subject-Verb; Pronoun-Antecedent

The rules for agreement are simple, but need emphasizing because breaking them often goes unnoticed.  Simply, every verb must agree with its subject in number (singular or plural); every pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number (singular or plural).

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
With ordinary nouns and verbs, most writers are aware of their status as singular or plural.  Problems arise in complex sentences with multiple phrases and/or clauses that confuse the matter.  Also, some words seem to defy logic and are “special problems.”

Special Problems of Subject-Verb Agreement
1.  Using “either … or” and “neither … nor.”
If these correlatives join singular subjects, the verb must be singular.
Example:  Either my sister or my brother visits China every year.
If these correlatives join plural subjects, the verb must be plural. 
Example:  In the Olympics, neither the Chinese nor the Americans compete well against the Russians.
If these correlatives join a singular noun with a plural noun, the verb agrees with the noun closest to it.
Examples: 
Neither Jake nor his brothers play the violin.
Either the 6000 fans or the announcer misunderstands the official’s ruling.

2.  Nouns joined by “and” govern a plural verb.
            Examples:
            Respectability and contentment accompany old age.
            Blocking for the quarterback and carrying the ball are two requirements of fullbacks.

3.  The verb should not be affected by a phrase between the subject and verb.
Examples:
The faculty, as well as many of the students, does not understand the new policy. (subj. and verb are both singular)
The space between the two cars allows no room for opening the doors.

4.  Using “a number of” or “the number of”
As a subject, “a number” followed by “of” takes a plural verb.
Example:  A number of travelers in the Southwest have witnessed meteor showers.
As a subject, “the number” followed by “of” takes a singular verb.
Example:  The number of different ideas students can generate astounds me.

5.  The following pronouns are singular, and therefore take a singular verb:


another
anybody
anyone
anything
each
either
everybody
everyone
everything
much
neither
nobody
no one
nothing
one
other
someone
something
somebody




Examples:
Each of the books is over a thousand pages long.
Anything my brother paints amazes me.
Nobody has the right to steal from another.

6.  The following pronouns are plural:  several, few, many, others, both.
Examples:
Several of the participants knew the answers.
A few of the students were enthusiastic.
Many of the papers were torn.
Both of the brothers played baseball.

7.  The following pronouns are singular or plural, depending on what follows them:  some, none, most, all.
Examples:
Some of the movies were funny.
Some of the cake was left over.
None of my students like me.
None of the field was plowed.
Most of my students are brilliant.
Most of the food is awful.
All of the books in the library are damaged.
All of the time was spent in mourning.

8.  Collective nouns are singular in form and usually take a singular verb.
Examples:
The pod of whales clusters around the biggest male for protection.
That choir sings beautifully.
The flock of geese travels south.

Note:  Exceptions to this rule occur when the writer thinks of the elements of the collective noun as individuals rather than as a groupl
Examples:
The Board of Education flounder during budget considerations.
As the gaggle of geese on the ground waddle here and there, they make a mess.



WEEK 10 – Agreement:  Pronoun-Antecedent

The rules for agreement are simple, but need emphasizing because breaking them often goes unnoticed.  Simply, every verb must agree with its subject in number (singular or plural); every pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number (singular or plural).



PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT
Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in both number and gender.  Also, pronouns should be placed as closely as possible to the antecedent.

Special Problems of Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
1.  The indefinite pronouns listed under No. 5 (above) need a singular pronoun.
Examples:
Anyone can succeed if she tries.
Everyone brought a gift for his writing teacher.
Someone should admit his unwillingness to excel in grammar.

2.  Plural indefinite pronouns require plural pronouns.
Examples:
Several of the participants quit because they were tired.
A few in the front row had paid significant amounts for their tickets.
I kept my seat on the bus, but others had to change theirs.

3.  Those indefinite pronouns that are either singular or plural take singular or plural pronouns accordingly.
Examples:
Some of the dog’s leash twisted itself around the clothesline.
None of the students had their pencils with them and were scolded by their teacher.











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